Ancient world. Persia

Mithra (Mythra)- the Persian god of light, whose cult penetrated into Rome and partially into Greece.

Since light and sun are closely related, Mithra is sometimes considered the god of the sun; however, in his Iranian ancestral home, and then in the Greco-Roman world, Mithra was the god of light, who (light) appears over the mountains before the sun. It was as if he was born out of a rock, on December 25, but the year of his birth is not exactly known; the first came to worship him the shepherds. Mithra was born in a Phrygian hat, with a knife and a bow. Having matured, Mithra entered into a struggle with the sun god and defeated him. Then, on behalf of the god of good Ahuramazda, he performed several difficult feats, in particular, he caught and killed a mighty bull, and this feat Mithra performed annually, since this bull was revived every time. Mithra always helped people in need and suffering, protected them during disasters and wars, demanded a pure and abstinent life from them, protected them from the demons of the god of evil Ahriman. For the observance of strict moral principles, Mithra promised his adherents, who called each other brothers, eternal bliss in the next world. He accompanied the souls of the dead to the afterlife, where he offered them a drink made of wine and blood of the bull he had killed, which ensured them immortality, and those who deserved it, Mithra led up a seven-step staircase to the heights of pure light. The symbols of Mithra were lion, bull and eagle.

The cult of Mithras was very ancient by Greco-Roman standards. A treaty has been preserved between the Hittite king Murshil and the ruler of the Mittans, containing an appeal to Mithra as a witness and patron of the treaty (in fact, the word "mitra" in the Avestan language means precisely "treaty", "consent"). This means that even then the cult of Mithra penetrated into Asia Minor, where the Greek settlers later met him. In Greece, he never took root - unlike Rome (at the end of the Republic), where he got through trade relations with the East, then with the return of the eastern legions and, finally, through slaves of eastern origin, among whom there were many admirers of Mithras. The cult of Mithra flourished in the 3rd century. n. e., after which he ceded to Christianity, with which he had much in common (date of birth of Mithras and Christ, baptism with water, dogma of the immortality of the soul, some moral precepts, symbols, etc.).

In the photo: a statue of the young god Mihra (Mithra) on Mount Nemrut in Western Armenia, now in Turkey. The supreme god in the Pantheon of Armenian gods, erected in the kingdom of Kommagene (1st century BC).

In Rome, many sanctuaries were dedicated to Mithra, usually underground and adapted for the joint evening meals of believers. The best preserved of them is located under the apse of the church of St. Clement in Lateran. Mithra was often depicted on the reliefs of the first centuries AD. e., as a rule in the form of the strictly canonized "Mithra killing the bull" (Mithra Tavroctonos).

Ideology and culture of Ancient Persia

In the first half of the 1st millennium BC. e. in Central Asia, Zoroastrianism arose - a religious teaching, the founder of which was Zoroaster (Zarathushtra).

In Persia, the masses worshiped the ancient deities of nature Mithra (the sun god), Anahita (the goddess of water and fertility), etc. revered light, sun, moon, wind, etc. Zoroastrianism began to spread in Persia only at the turn of the 6th - 5th centuries, i.e. during the reign of Darius I. The Persian kings, appreciating the advantages of the teachings of Zoroaster as their new official religion, nevertheless did not abandon the cults of the ancient gods, personifying the elemental forces of nature, which the Iranian tribes worshiped. In the VI - IV centuries. Zoroastrianism had not yet become a dogmatic religion with firmly fixed norms, and therefore various modifications of the new religious teaching arose; and one such form of early Zoroastrianism was the Persian religion, beginning with the time of Darius I.

One of the remarkable achievements of ancient Iranian culture is the Achaemenid art. It is known mainly from the monuments of Pasargadae, Persepolis, Susa, the reliefs of the Behistun rock and the tombs of the Persian kings in modern Naqsh-i Rustam (not far from Persepolis), numerous monuments of toreutics and glyptics.

The palace complexes in Pasargadae, Persepolis and Susa are magnificent monuments of Persian architecture.

Pasargadae is located at an altitude of 1900 m above sea level on a vast plain. The buildings of the city - the oldest monuments of Persian material culture - are erected on a high terrace. They are faced with light sandstone, beautifully granular and reminiscent of marble. The royal palaces were located among parks and gardens. Perhaps the most remarkable monument of Pasargadae, striking in its noble beauty, is the tomb that has survived to this day, in which Cyrus II was buried. Seven wide steps lead to the burial chamber 2 m wide and 3 m long.Many similar monuments, including the Halicarnassus mausoleum of the satrap Kariy Mavsol, which in ancient times was considered one of the seven wonders of the world, go back to this tomb, directly or indirectly.

The area of Persepolis is 135,000 sq. m. An artificial platform was built at the foot of the mountain. The city built on this platform was surrounded on three sides by a double wall of mud bricks, and on the east side it was adjacent to an impregnable rock. One could walk to Persepolis by a wide grand staircase of 110 steps. The grand palace (apadana) of Darius I consisted of a large front hall with an area of 3600 sq. m. This hall was surrounded by porticoes. The ceiling of the hall and porticoes was supported by 72 thin graceful stone columns. The height of these columns is more than 20 m. Apadana symbolized the power and greatness of the king and state and served for large state receptions. She was associated with the personal palaces of Darius I and Xerxes. Two staircases led to apadana, on which reliefs with images of courtiers, the personal guard of the king, cavalry and chariots are still preserved. On one side of the staircase, there is a long procession of representatives of the 33 nations of the power, carrying gifts and gifts to the Persian king. This is a real ethnographic museum depicting all the characteristic features of various tribes and peoples, including their clothes and facial features. The palaces of other Persian kings, premises for servants and barracks for the army were also located in Persepolis.

During the reign of Darius I, a great deal of construction was carried out in Susa. Materials for the construction of the palaces were brought in from 12 countries, and artisans from many countries were employed in construction and decorative work.

Since the palaces of the Persian kings were built and decorated by multinational builders, ancient Persian art arose as a result of an organic synthesis of Iranian artistic traditions and techniques with Elamite, Assyrian, Egyptian, Greek and other foreign traditions. But, despite eclecticism, internal unity and originality are inherent in ancient Persian art, since this art as a whole is the result of specific historical conditions, distinctive ideology and social life, which gave new functions and meanings to borrowed forms.

Ancient Persian art is characterized by the virtuoso finishing of an isolated object. Most often these are metal bowls and vases, goblets carved from stone, ivory rhytons, jewelry, lapis lazuli sculpture, etc. Artistic craft was very popular among the Persians, on the monuments of which domestic and wild animals (rams, lions, wild boars, etc.) are realistically depicted. Among such works of great interest are carved from agate, chalcedony, jasper, etc. cylindrical seals. These seals, which depict kings, heroes, fantastic and real creatures, still amaze the viewer with the perfection of forms and originality of the plot.

A major achievement of the culture of ancient Iran is the creation of ancient Persian cuneiform, which was used to draw up solemn royal inscriptions. The most famous of them is the Behistun rock inscription, carved at a height of 105 m and telling about the historical events of the end of the reign of Cambyses and the first years of the reign of Darius I. Like almost all Achaemenid inscriptions, it is composed in ancient Persian, Akkadian and Elamite languages.

Among the cultural achievements of the Achaemenid time, one can also mention the ancient Persian lunar calendar, which consisted of 12 months of 29 or 30 days, which was 354 days. Thus, according to the ancient Persian calendar, the year was 11 days shorter than the solar year. Every three years, the difference between the lunar and solar calendar reached 30-33 days, and to eliminate this difference, an additional (leap) thirteenth month was added to the year. The names of the months were associated with agricultural work (for example, the month of cleaning irrigation canals, collecting garlic, severe frost) or with religious holidays (month of worshiping fire, etc.).

In Iran, there was also a Zoroastrian calendar, in which the names of months and days are derived from the names of Zoroastrian deities (Ahura Mazda, Mithra, Anahita, etc.). The year of this calendar consisted of 12 months of 30 days each, to which 5 more days were added (365 days in total). Apparently, the Zoroastrian calendar originated in Eastern Iran as early as the Achaemenid period. At this time, it was used only for religious purposes, but later (at least under the Sassanids) it was recognized as the official state calendar.

The Persian conquests and the unification of dozens of peoples into a single power contributed to the expansion of the intellectual and geographical horizon of its subjects. Iran, which from time immemorial was a mediator in the transfer of cultural values from East to West and vice versa, not only continued this historical role under the Achaemenids, but also created an original and highly developed civilization.

In the ideology of Ancient Iran, Zoroastrianism played an important role - a religious teaching that arose in Central Asia around the 7th century. BC e. and so named after its founder Zarathushtra (in the Greek transmission Zoroaster).

Soon after its inception, Zoroastrianism began to spread to Media, Persia and other countries of the Iranian world. Apparently, during the reign of the last Median king, Astyages, he already became the official religion in Media. The priests of the Zoroastrian cult were magicians - experts in ritual and rituals, keepers of the religious traditions of the Medes and Persians.

In Persia, the masses worshiped the ancient deities of nature - Mithra (the sun god), Anahita (the goddess of water and fertility) and other gods, in whom they worshiped the light, the moon, the wind, etc. Zoroastrianism began to spread in Persia only at the turn of VI— V centuries. BC e., that is, during the reign of Darius I. The Persian kings, having appreciated the advantages of the teachings of Zoroaster as their new official religion, nevertheless did not abandon the cults of the ancient gods worshiped by the Iranian tribes. In the VI-IV centuries. BC e. Zoroastrianism had not yet become a dogmatic religion with firmly fixed norms, and therefore various modifications of the new religious teaching arose. One such form of early Zoroastrianism was the Persian religion from the time of Darius I.

It is precisely the absence of a dogmatic religion that explains the exceptional tolerance of the Persian kings. For example, Cyrus II in every possible way patronized the revival of ancient cults in the conquered countries and ordered to restore the temples destroyed by his predecessors in Babylonia, Elam, Judea, etc. After the capture of Egypt, Cambyses was crowned according to Egyptian customs, participated in religious ceremonies in the temple of the goddess Neith in the city Sais, worshiped and offered sacrifices to other Egyptian gods. Darius I declared himself the son of the goddess Neith, built temples to Ammon and other Egyptian gods. In the temples of the gods of the conquered peoples, sacrifices were made on behalf of the Persian kings, who sought to achieve a benevolent attitude towards themselves. According to documents from the Persepolis archive of the late 6th - early 5th century. BC e., in Persepolis and other cities of Persia and Elam, products (wine, sheep, grain, etc.) were released from the royal warehouses to worship not only the supreme gods Ahura Mazda (symbol of good, light, truth) and other Iranian gods but also the Elamite and Babylonian gods. And although in the list of gods Ahura-Mazda is always mentioned in the first place, three times less wine is released for his cult than was intended for one of the Elamite gods. In general, the gods of the Iranian pantheon appear in Persepolian texts less often than the Elamite gods, and, judging by the size of the sacrifices and libations, they did not at all occupy a privileged position. Only the absence of dogmatic intolerance in ancient religions can explain the fact that in one Aramaic inscription of the 4th century BC. e., found in Asia Minor, it is said about the marriage between the Babylonian god Bel and the Iranian goddess Daina-mazdayasnish ("Mazdayasnian faith", that is, Zoroastrianism). True, when a rebellion broke out in Babylonia against Persian domination ^ Xerxes destroyed main temple of this country Esagil and ordered to take away from there to Persia the statue of the god Marduk. He also destroyed Greek temples. However, Xerxes resorted to these actions only as a last resort, trying to deprive the hostile population of the help of local gods. In Iran, Xerxes carried out a religious reform aimed at centralizing the cult. With her help, he apparently wanted to destroy the temples of Mithra, Anahita and other ancient Iranian deities rejected by Zoroaster. However, this reform turned out to be doomed to failure, since after half a century these deities were again officially recognized.

Although the Persian kings did not infringe on the religious feelings of the conquered peoples, they strove to prevent the excessive strengthening of the temples. In Egypt, Babylonia, Asia Minor and other countries, the temples were levied with state taxes and had to send their slaves for use in the royal economy.

The Persian state was characterized by the processes of intense ethnic mixing, syncretism of cultures and religious ideas of various peoples. This was primarily facilitated by more regular than in the previous period, contacts between different parts of the state. Foreigners easily became involved in the social and economic life of the country where they settled, gradually assimilated by the local population, adopted its language and culture and, in turn, exerted a certain cultural influence. Lively ethnic contacts contributed to the synthesis of scientific knowledge, art techniques and the gradual emergence of, in essence, a new material and spiritual culture.

The Persians and other Iranian peoples borrowed many of the achievements of the civilization of the Elamites, Babylonians and Egyptians, developed them further and, thus, enriched the treasury of world culture. One of the major achievements of the Persians "was the creation of a kind of cuneiform. Persian cuneiform, in contrast to Akkadian, containing about 600 characters, was almost alphabetical and had only a little more than 40 characters.

The palace complexes in Pasargadae, Persepolis and Susa are magnificent monuments of Persian architecture.

Pasargadae is located at an altitude of 1900 m above sea level on a vast plain. The buildings of the city - the oldest monuments of Persian material culture - are erected on a high terrace. They are faced with light sandstone, beautifully granular and reminiscent of marble. The royal palaces were located among parks and gardens. Perhaps the most remarkable monument of Pasargadae, striking in its noble beauty, is the tomb that has survived to this day, in which Cyrus II was buried. Seven wide steps lead to the burial chamber 2 m wide and 3 m long. Many similar monuments, including the Halicarnassus mausoleum of the satrap Kariy Mavsol, which in ancient times was considered one of the seven wonders of the world, go back to this tomb, directly or indirectly.

The construction of Persepolis began around 520 BC. e. and lasted until about 450 BC. e. The area of the city is 135,000 sq. m. An artificial platform was built at the foot of the mountain, for which it was necessary to level about 12,000 square meters. m of uneven rocky surface. The city built on this platform was surrounded on three sides by a double wall of mud bricks, and on the east side it was adjacent to an impregnable mountain cliff. One could walk to Persepolis by a wide grand staircase from PO steps. The grand palace (apadana) of Darius I consisted of a large hall with an area of 3600 sq. m, surrounded by porticoes. The ceiling of the hall and porticoes was supported by 72 slender and graceful stone columns about 20 m high. Apadana served for large state receptions. It was connected to the personal palaces of Darius I and Xerxes. Two staircases led to apadana, on which reliefs with images of courtiers, the personal guard of the king, cavalry and chariots are still preserved. On one side of the staircase, there is a long procession of representatives of the 33 nations of the power, carrying gifts and gifts to the Persian king. This is a real ethnological museum depicting all the characteristic features of various tribes and peoples. The palaces of other Achaemenid kings were also located in Persepolis.

Three kilometers from Persepolis, in the rocks called Naqsh-i-Rustam, are the tombs of Darius I and several other Persian kings, decorated with reliefs.

Under Darius I, a large building was carried out in Susa. Materials for the construction of palaces were delivered from 12 countries. Craftsmen from many areas were employed in construction and decorative work. About the construction of one of the Suz palaces, the inscription of Darius I says the following: “The earth was dug deep, gravel was covered, mud brick was molded - the Babylonian people [all this] did. The cedar comes from Mount Lebanon. The Assyrian people brought him to Babylon, and the Carians and Ionians brought him to Susa. The tree was brought from Gandhara and Karmania. The gold used here comes from Lydia and Bactria. The gems, lapis lazuli and carnelian used here were brought from Sogdiana. The turquoise used here comes from Khorezm, silver and ebony from Egypt, wall decorations from Ionia, ivory from Ethiopia, India and Ara-khosia. The stone columns used here were brought from the village of Abi-Radu in Elam. The workers who cut the stone were Ionians and Lydians. Goldsmiths ... were the Medes and the Egyptians. The people who inlaid the tree were Medes and Egyptians. The people who molded the burnt brick were the Babylonians. The people who decorated the wall were Medes and Egyptians. "

Colossal palace complexes, created by the labor of the conquered peoples, symbolized the power and greatness of the new world power. Ancient Persian art arose as a result of an organic synthesis of Iranian artistic traditions and techniques with Elamite, Assyrian, Egyptian, Greek and other foreign traditions. Despite some eclecticism, internal unity and originality are inherent in it, since this art as a whole is the result of specific historical conditions, original ideology and social life, which gave new functions and meaning to the borrowed forms.

Among the objects of ancient Persian art, there are metal bowls and vases, goblets carved from stone, ivory rhytons, jewelry, lapis lazuli sculpture, etc. The Persian masters especially succeeded and were very popular art products, which realistically depicted domestic and wild animals (rams, lions, wild boars, etc.). Among the works of art, of considerable interest are cylindrical seals carved from agate, chalcedony, jasper, etc. Decorated with images of kings, heroes, fantastic and real creatures, they still amaze the viewer with the perfection of forms and originality of the plot.

Another history of the Middle Ages. From antiquity to the Renaissance Kalyuzhny Dmitry Vitalievich

Greek names Persian gods

The ancient religion of Iran differs from other religions in the region. They call her Mazdism by the name of the main god Agura Mazda, Zoroastrianism named after the legendary founder of this doctrine, Zoroaster (Stargazer, in Greek), avestism by the name of the main sacred book of the Avesta, parsism by the name of the modern group of followers; supporters of this religion are also called fire worshipers... One of the directions of this religion - Mithraism.

Main god Ahura Mazda(in the Greek spelling Ormuzd) - the god of light, he is opposed by the god of darkness (evil) Angro Mainyu(Greek Ahriman). These gods have a retinue of the spirits of light and good. agurov and the spirits of evil and darkness devas... This division into light and dark is a very unusual phenomenon for ancient religions.

The doctrine contains the idea of the arrival before the end of the world either a son or an incarnation of the god Ormuzd. He must be born of a virgin. It is he who must put the last point in the struggle between good and evil, after which hell and the souls of sinners in it will be destroyed.

It is interesting that the founder of the religion Zoroaster (in another spelling Zarathustra or Zarathushtra), just like the Buddha in India, over time began to be perceived by believers as God himself.

But how old is Zoroastrianism?

The oldest known text of the religion dates back to the 13th century AD. e. (The crusaders have already "disappeared" in Iraq for a hundred years and, presumably, have penetrated into Iran). Why are there no earlier documents? Historians believe that they, of course, were, but Alexander the Great and the Arabs destroyed them. A very convenient opinion, it is impossible to prove or disprove it.

Please note that all (all!) Ancient documents have somehow disappeared. Library of Alexandria, papal archives, works of ancient authors, ancient Bible texts; texts of Buddhism, Hinduism, Zoroastrianism; Chinese and other ancient chronicles. They burned, drowned, mice ate, Alexander the Great destroyed it, the Arabs liquidated it, the Inquisition burned it down, the emperor ordered to let it go downwind. But such statements are nothing more than speculation, because there is no evidence of the increased gluttony of ancient mice or the hatred of A.F. Macedonsky for written texts.

Out of five sacred books Four Zoroastrianisms are written in a language close to Sanskrit, one in the Middle Persian Pahlavi language. One of the books is called Zenda-Vesta, which means the Good News, the Gospel in Greek.

Knowing where and where the development actually came from allows us to take a fresh look at the features of Zoroastrianism. It appears as something like the Nicolaitanship of the Byzantine Empire.

Traditionally, it is believed that the pantheon of gods that came from India to Iran underwent such changes in Iran: only the gods of the priests remained, and the patron gods of the military and peasants ceased to be gods, moving to the rank of devas, demons. This, historians believe, is the result of the reform carried out by the prophet Zoroaster, who founded a system similar to monotheism. Ahura Mazda - Lord Wisdom - not only separated himself from other gods, but became incommensurable with them. All the Indo-Iranian deities survived, but a single God-master appeared. Instead of many gods prone to excesses and rivalry, now they were all reduced to one Creator, and the functions and hierarchy of saints were largely preserved.

In Zoroastrianism, the usual Indo-Iranian and Indo-European scheme of a three-functional pantheon turned into a set of certain creatures Amesha Spenta(immortal saints). This Spenta Mainho(spirit of holiness), Wohu Mana(good news, analogue of Mithra), Asha Vakhishta(truth, analogue of Varuna), Khshatra Vairya(power), Armayti(piety), Aurvat(integrity), Amartat(immortality) who have become carriers of certain qualities. This transition is not unusual. Many gods, for example among the Indians, were previously just epithets to the name of the main god, but over time they separated from him and acquired an independent existence, - for example, Ashvins Aryaman and Bhaga refer to Mithra (his epithets), and Ashvins Daksha and Ansha- to Varuna, these are his epithets.

Here are some analogies between Indian and Iranian religious categories:

India - Iran

Soma - Haoma

Agni - Ataru

Varuna - Agura Mazda

Mithra - Mythra

Indra - the demon Indra

Nasati - the demon of Nanhaitya

Virgins (deities) - Devas (evil spirits, demons)

Asuras (evil spirits, demons) - Agura (good spirits)

As you can see, some deities became demons, and some demons became gods. This transition can be illustrated by an example from the history of Russia. So, the pre-Gospel Christian holiday of Ivan Kupala (John the Baptist) at one fine time was declared pagan, devilish. And very soon the goblin, brownies, water and other good guys "changed the sign" from plus to minus, from the gods of nature turned into an evil spirit. It is easy to understand that local gods stayed in their rank where their worshipers defeated, and moved to the rank of demons where their worshipers lost. Among the Iranians, the Agurs won a purely military victory over the devas, and in Indian mythology, on the contrary, the mighty, but unreasonable asuras were defeated.

So such a reform could take place in Iran only in the event of radical changes in the social structure of society, or come from outside, from outside. We believe that the reform of Zoroaster is the result of the Crusades, that is, it was brought from the outside. This is indicated, for example, by the famous inscription of Xerxes of anti-Deva content. He destroyed the sanctuaries of the Deva worshipers and planted the cult of Ahura Mazda. Thus, old beliefs were destroyed and new ones were implanted, and this is the only way to understand the transition of gods to the category of demons, and demons to the rank of gods. And India was too tough for the crusaders. That is, a certain belief system came to both India and Iran at the same time from Europe, but in Iran it was later reformed by newcomers from the same Europe, in almost the same way as in Russia.

Therefore, Zoroastrianism is not an independent evolution of Hinduism in Iran. Indo-European gods came from Europe and to India and Iran independently, together with the settling peoples and their priests. Zoroastrianism is a local transformation of a religion that came from the West and was later revised by the Crusaders, the carriers of the new Western religious system. The fact that the original "homeland" of the local gods was Europe follows at least from the fact that Germanic-Scandinavian mythology also contains aces; they turned in India into asura, and in Iran in agurov.

A small group of followers of Zoroastrianism exists now in India, they are called Parsis. And those who stayed in Iran are called gebras by Muslims. Etymology of the name gebras not exactly defined; in particular, they tried to deduce him from the Arabic kafir(incorrect), but it may also be that the word comes from the Greek hebraios, Jew. Isn't this the remnants of the initial wave of immigrants from Italy during the campaign of Moses? This religion has a special relationship with fire, which becomes understandable if we take into account their exodus from the foot of Vesuvius.

The main occupation of the Parsis is trade. Among them came the largest capitalists in India. In the book “ZOROASTRIANS. Beliefs and customs "Mary Boyce writes about the Parsis:" They played an important role in the life of two states [Pakistan and India], as they produced an amazing (commensurate with the size of the community) number of public figures, military men, pilots, scientists, industrialists, publishers newspapers ". Followers of Zoroaster migrated from Iran to India and Pakistan, and not vice versa.

In the mythology of the Turkic-speaking peoples of Asia Minor and Central Asia, Kazakhstan, the Caucasus, Western Siberia, the Volga region, the Gagauz devas(with different pronunciation: dev, dev, deo, dyau, daew, daew, diu, tiv etc.) - evil spirits. This shows that even here these performances came directly from Iran, and not from India.

... We have already written about the most important direction of the Iranian religion, Mithraism, and we will not repeat ourselves. Recall that, in our opinion, it appeared at the beginning of our era in Europe and spread to the East. Traditional historians believe that this religion went from East to West, moreover, BC; but the opinion of the apologists of Christianity is also interesting, who believed that Satan himself inspired the Mithraists with the idea of imitating the rites of Christians in order to discredit the latter. It turns out that Christians admit that Mithraism is not at all so ancient. After all, the Mithraists of antiquity could not imitate what appeared in Europe only with the Nativity of Christ.

The headdress of the Mithraic high priest is the tiara, or miter. The Pope's headdress also has this name; like the priests of Mithras, the Pope puts on red shoes and also manages the keys of the “rock god” Peter.

We believe that Mithraism in the form as it is known is a sect of primary Christianity, which included the previous cult of the Sun God in its rituals. On the territory of Iran, this belief was also "diluted" with local folklore.

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From the book Book III. Great Russia of the Mediterranean the author Saverskiy Alexander Vladimirovich

The names of the gods It is worth starting with the name of the supreme god of the Greek pantheon - Zeus. The name Zeus - Zeus has a very characteristic Latin ending "us". This is the ending of masculine nouns in the nominative case. In the Etruscan language, the ending "us" was also used, although

Ancient Iranian tribes revered as gods asura or ahurov("lords"), which included the gods Mithra, Varuna, Varetragna and other deities. The highest ahura had a name Ahura Mazda which meant "Lord-Wisdom", "Wise Lord" *.
Ahura Mazda and Ahura were associated with one of the main religious concepts - "art" or "asha" - a fair legal order, divine justice, and in this sense they fully corresponded to the Indian adityas.
Along with the akhurs, the ancient Iranian tribes revered dives, and later - devas- deities who remained the object of worship of a part of the Aryan tribes who left for India, and some Iranian tribes. But among other Iranian tribes, the devas ended up "in the camp of evil."

The confrontation between the light forces of good, led by Ahura Mazda and the forces of darkness under the leadership of Angra Manyu (Ahriman)

The ancient religion of these Iranian tribes was characterized by dualism: the opposition of light forces to dark, good versus evil. These views were further developed in the system zoroastrianism with a pronounced confrontation between two principles: the forces of good, headed by Ahura-Mazda, and the forces of evil and darkness, under the leadership of Anhra Mainyu (later - Ahriman). To the army of the camp of Angra Mainyu belongeddevas - former gods who became sorcererswho harmed fire, earth, water (polluted it),did not honor the gods, caused strife between people, destructive wars and introduced greed and envy into people's lives.

In addition to the devas, female demonic beings also appeared - steamiks- sorceresses in the images of either old women or beauties. On the outskirts of Iran, their veneration, under the name " peri", together with the devas continued for quite a long time.
Devas and Peri were associated with another fundamental religious concept - "friend" or "druch" - lies and distortions of truth and divine order... In response to the creation of peace, life, light, warmth by Ahura-Mazda, Angra-Mainyu created death, winter, cold, flood, from which Ahura-Mazda saved people by building a special shelter for them.

The appearance of the devas and the steamik on Earth

Having broken the celestial sphere, Angra Mainyu burst into our world, and hordes of devas and a paraik rushed after him. The comets, meteors and planets he created wreaked total chaos, disrupting the orderly movement of the stars. And then myriads of hrafstra - harmful animals (wolves, rats, snakes, lizards, scorpions, etc.) - poured onto the Earth. The world was saved by Ahura Mazda. After that, the devas and their master took refuge in the dungeons.

A special place in Iranian legends is occupied by a very ancient priestly caste of Magi, although they accepted the Zoroastrian doctrine, but all the time remained its secret opponents.

Ahura and Devas - humanoid gods and gigantic demons

Most Indo-Iranian deities were represented in human form, but distinctive feature Varetragny - the god of Victory, the owner of the constant epithet "created by the ahurs", "ahurodan" - was his incarnation in a wild boar, a boar, famous among the Iranians for his frantic courage. This brings him closer to the third avatar of Vishnu, during which he saved the Earth from the flood.
Devas were often presented as giants (and), perfectly wielding black magic.

According to M. Boyes ("Zoroastrians. Beliefs and Customs", 1987), in ancient india the god of victory Varetragna was replaced by Indra, who had as his prototype the Indo-Iranian warrior of the heroic era. Indra was immoral and demanded abundant offerings from his admirers, for which he generously rewarded them with material benefits. The difference between Indra and the moral ahura is especially clearly visible in one of the hymns of the Rig Veda (Rig Veda 4, 42), in which he and Varuna take turns expressing their claims to greatness.
The founder of the Zoroastrian religion Zarathushtra (Zoroaster) applied the title "devas" to Indra and contrasted it with the Ahuras. This is an additional argument in favor of the fact that adityas, daityas and danavas practically did not differ from each other.

As you can see, the ancient Iranian asuras or ahurs largely answered the ancient Indian adityas, and the daivas or devas - the daityas and danavas.... However, as in Indian traditions, there were no clear differences between them. On the contrary, those who were revered by some Iranian tribes and the Aryans who left for India as gods, devas, were treated by other Iranian tribes - followers of the Zoroastrian doctrine as demons hostile to the gods.

The difference between ahurs and devas is in their relation to the divine order

Perhaps, the only fundamental difference between Ahurs and Devas, as in ancient India, was their relationship to the divine order. Moreover, the divine order in Zoroastrian literature, and, first of all, the Avesta, meant the movement of the planets, the length of the year and the alternation of the seasons *. Devas were considered not only as "heretics", but also as destroyers of the established divine order, sending darkness, cold and deluge to the Earth (do you not see in this a connection between the devas and global catastrophes?) And as forces that cause destructive wars and carry them into the world violence and death. At least once they managed to destroy the world, for which Ahura-Mazda drove them ... underground (to underground shelters?).

Original Russian Text © A.V. Koltypin, 2009

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