Philosophy during the Roman Empire. Philosophers of ancient Rome and their role in the history of world culture Philosophy of ancient Rome main ideas and representatives

From the beginning of the III century BC. e. in the Mediterranean region, the influence of Rome is significantly increasing, which, from an urban republic, is becoming a strong power. In the II century. BC e. he already owns a large part of the ancient world. The cities of mainland Greece also fall under his economic and political influence. Thus, the penetration of Greek culture begins in Rome, of which philosophy was an integral part. Roman culture and education developed in completely different conditions than those that were several centuries earlier in Greece. The Roman campaigns, directed in all directions of the then known world (on the one hand, in the field of mature civilizations of the ancient world, and on the other, on the territory of "barbarian" tribes), form a broad framework for the formation of Roman thinking. The natural and technical sciences developed successfully, political and legal ones reached an unprecedented scale. Therefore, it is that Roman philosophy was also formed under the decisive influence of Greek, in particular Hellenistic, philosophical thinking. A definite impetus for the expansion of Greek philosophy in Rome was the visit by Athenian ambassadors, among whom were the most prominent representatives of the Greek philosophical schools that existed at that time (mid-2nd century BC).

From about this time, three philosophical trends developed in Rome, which were already formed in Hellenistic Greece - Stoicism, Epicureanism and Skepticism.

Stoicism. Stoicism was most widespread both in republican and later in imperial Rome. Sometimes it is considered the only philosophical movement that took on a new meaning in the Roman period. Its beginnings can be seen already in the influence of Diogenes from Seleucia and An-typatra from Tarsus (who arrived in Rome with the aforementioned Athenian embassy). A notable role in the development of Stoicism in Rome was also played by representatives of the middle class - Panethius of Rhodes and Posidonius, who worked in Rome for a relatively long period. Their merit is that they contributed to the widespread spread of Stoicism in the middle and upper classes of Roman society. Among the students of Panethius were such outstanding personalities of ancient Rome as Scipio the Younger and Cicero. Panethius, in the basic tenets of his doctrine, largely adhered to the old stoicism. So, he meets the concept of logos, analogous to the concept, for example, in Chrysippus, who adhered to similar ontological views. In the field of ethics, he brought the ideal of the Stoic sage somewhat closer to practical life.

The further development of Roman Stoicism was greatly influenced by Posidonius. In the field of ontology, he develops the main philosophical problems of the teachings of Aristotle, as well as issues bordering on natural science and cosmology. He combines the original philosophical and ethical views of Greek Stoicism with elements of the teachings of Plato, and in some cases with Pythagorean mysticism. (This reflects a certain eclecticism that was typical of Roman philosophy of that period.)

The most prominent representatives of Roman Stoicism (new sta) were Seneca, Epictetus and Marcus Aurelius.

Seneca (c. 4 BC-65 AD) came from the class of "horsemen" 28, received a comprehensive natural science, legal and philosophical education, a relatively long period of successfully practicing law. Later he becomes the educator of the future emperor Nero, after whose accession to the throne he receives the highest social status and honors. In the second year of the power of Nero, he dedicated to him the treatise "On Mercy", in which he urges Nero as a ruler to maintain moderation and adhere to the republican spirit.

As prestige and wealth grows, Seneca comes into conflict with his environment. After a fire in 64 A.D. e. hatred of Seneca in Rome is growing. He leaves town and lives on his nearby estate. Charged with plotting a conspiracy, he was forced to commit suicide.

Seneca's legacy is vast. His most outstanding works include Letters to Lucilius, Discourse on Providence, On the Resilience of a Philosopher, On Anger, On a Happy Life, On Free Time, On Virtue, etc. For with the exception of Questions of Nature, all of his works are devoted to ethical issues. If the old standing believed physics to be the soul, then the philosophy of the new standing considers it to be a completely subordinate field.

In views on nature (as well as in the rest of his work), Seneca, however, in principle adheres to the teachings of the old stop. This is manifested, for example, in the materialistically oriented dualism of matter and form. Mind is considered to be an active principle that imparts form to matter. In this case, the primacy of matter is unambiguously recognized. He also understands the soul (pneuma) in the spirit of the old stoicism, as a very subtle matter, a mixture of the elements of fire and air.

In epistemology, Seneca, like other representatives of Stoicism, is a supporter of ancient sensationalism. He emphasizes that the mind has its origin in feelings. When deciding on the activity of the soul, he, however, accepts some elements of Platonic philosophy, which is manifested primarily in the recognition of the immortality of the soul and the characterization of corporeality as the "fetters" of the soul.

Seneca proceeds from the fact that everything in the world and in the universe is subject to the power of strict necessity. This follows from his concept of God as an immanent, ruling force that dominates reason (logos). Seneca characterizes it as "the highest good and the highest wisdom", which is realized in the harmony of the world and its purposeful structure.

Unlike the old stand Seneca (as well as all Roman Stoicism) almost does not deal with logical problems. The center and focus of his system is ethics. The principle of harmony with nature (to live happily means to live in accordance with nature) and the principle of human subordination to fate are distinguished as the main ones. The question of how to live life is the subject of his treatises "On the brevity of life" and "On a happy life." They project both the personal experience of Seneca and the social relations of the then Rome. The loss of civil liberties and the decline of republican virtues during the era of imperial rule lead him to significant doubts about the future. “Life is divided into three periods: past, present and future. Of these, the one in which we live is short; the one in which we will live is doubtful, and only the one that We have lived is definite. Only it is stable, fate does not affect it, but no one can return it either ”29. Seneca rejects the desire for the accumulation of property, for secular honors and positions: “The higher one ascended, the closer he is to fall. Very poor and very short is the life of the person who, with great efforts, acquires that which, with great efforts, he must keep ”30. However, he used his social position and became one of the richest and most influential people in Rome. When his enemies pointed to the fact that his own life is very different from the ideals that he proclaims, he answered them in his treatise On a Happy Life: “... all philosophers talk not about how they themselves live, but about how one should live.

I speak about virtue, but not about myself and I am fighting against sins, which means against my own: when I overcome them, I will live as I should ”31.

Seneca sees the meaning of life in achieving absolute peace of mind. One of the main prerequisites for this is overcoming the fear of death. He devotes a lot of space to this problem in his writings. In ethics, he continues the line of the old stand, emphasizing the concept of man as an individual striving for improvement in virtues.

A life in which a person devotes all or the overwhelming part of his efforts to his own improvement, a life in which he avoids participation in public affairs and political activities, is, according to Seneca, the most worthy. “Better to seek shelter in a quiet dock than to be voluntarily thrown back and forth all my life. Think how many shocks of waves you have already been exposed to, how many storms swept through your private life, how many of them you unconsciously caused upon yourself in public life! I do not mean that you drown your days in sleep and pleasure. This is not what I call a fulfilling life. Strive to find tasks that are more important than those that you have been doing so far, and believe that it is more important to know the account of your own life than the common good that you have been thinking about until now! If you live like this, communication with wise men awaits you, wonderful art, love and the accomplishment of good; the awareness of how good it is to live and one day to die well. ”32 His ethical views are imbued with individualism, which is a reaction to the turbulent political life in Rome.

Another prominent representative of Roman Stoicism, Epictetus (50-138), was originally a slave. After he was released, he devoted himself entirely to philosophy. In his views there is much from the old stand, which influenced him, and from the work of Seneca. He himself did not leave any work. His thoughts were recorded by his disciple Arrian of Niko-media in the treatises "The Reasoning of Epictetus" and "The Manual of Epictetus". Epictetus defended the point of view according to which philosophy, in fact, is not only knowledge, but also application in practical life, He was not an original thinker, his merit mainly consists in the popularization of Stoic philosophy.

In his ontological concepts and views in the field of the theory of knowledge, he proceeded from Greek Stoicism. The works of Chrysippus had an exceptional influence on him. The core of Epictetus' philosophy is ethics based on a stoic understanding of virtue and life in accordance with the general nature of the world.

The study of nature (physics) is important and useful not because on its basis it is possible to change nature (the world around), but because, in accordance with nature, a person can order his life. A person should not desire what he cannot master: “If you want your children, your wife and your friends to live permanently, then you are either crazy, or you want things that are not in your power to be in your power and that what is alien is yours ”33. And since it is not within the power of man to change the objective world, society is not within the power of man, one should not strive for this.

Epictetus criticizes and condemns the then public order. He emphasizes the idea of the equality of people, condemns slavery. This is how his views differ from the Stoic doctrine. The central motive of his philosophy - resignation to a given reality - leads, however, to passivity. “Do not want everything to happen as you want, but wish that everything happens as it happens, and you will be happy in life” 34.

Epictetus considers reason to be the real essence of man. Thanks to him, man participates in the general order of the world. Therefore, one should not worry about well-being, comfort and, in general, bodily pleasures, but only about one's soul.

Just as reason rules over man, so the world mind rules - logos (God). He is the source and determining factor of the development of the world. Things, as a controlled god, should obey him. Freedom and independence, to which he attached great importance, Epictetus limits only spiritual freedom, freedom of humility with reality.

Epictetus' ethics is essentially rationalistic. And although it is expressively marked by subjectivism, it still protects (in contrast to the irrationalist currents that were forming at that time) the power of the human mind.

In essence, the entire philosophy of Epictetus is an expression of the passive protest of the lower social classes against the existing social order. This protest, however, does not find a real way out. Therefore, it translates into a call to come to terms with the existing state of affairs.

Emperor Marcus Aurelius Antoninus (121-180) also belongs to the Roman Stoics, during whose reign the crisis phenomena became even more intense. The upper social classes refuse to change anything in order to preserve the existing social order. In Stoic ethics, they see a certain means of moral revival of society. The Emperor in his reflections "To himself" proclaims that "the only thing that is in the power of man are his thoughts." “Look into your gut! There, inside, there is a source of good, which is able to beat without running out, if you constantly dig up to it. " He understands the world as eternally flowing and changeable. The main goal of human aspirations should be the achievement of virtue, that is, submission to "reasonable laws of nature in accordance with human nature." Marcus Aurelius recommends: "A calm thought with everything that comes from the outside, and justice with everything" that is realized at your own discretion, that is, your desire and action, let them consist of generally useful actions, for this is the essence in accordance with your nature. "

Marcus Aurelius is the last representative of ancient stoicism, and in fact this is where stoicism ends. Certain traces of mysticism appear in his work, which is closely associated with the decline of Roman society. The Stoic doctrine, in particular the emphasis on the need to "subordinate oneself" (to the world mind - logos - to God), largely influenced the formation of early Christianity.

Epicureanism. The only materialistic (for its time, clearly materialistic) philosophy in ancient Rome was Epicureanism, which spread significantly in the last years of the Roman Republic and at the beginning of the imperial rule. Its most prominent representative was Titus Lucretius Kar (c. 95-55 BC), who wrote the philosophical poem "On Nature", which is also a valuable work of fiction in the literature of that time.

Lucretius fully identifies his views with the teachings of Democritus and Epicurus; the latter he considered the best Greek philosopher. In his work, he skillfully explains, proves and promotes the views of the early representatives of the atomistic doctrine, consistently defends the basic principles of atomism from both earlier and contemporary opponents, giving at the same time the most integral and logically ordered interpretation of atomistic philosophy. At the same time, in many cases he develops and deepens the thoughts of Democritus and Epicurus. The only existence Lucretius considers atoms and emptiness.

Matter, first of all, is the primary bodies of things, and secondly, everything that is the totality of the named elements. No force, however, can destroy atoms, they always win with their impenetrability. The first is deeply different, those two things have a double character, as it was said above, matter and space, everything happens in it; they are necessary in themselves and are pure. Where the void, the so-called space, stretches, there is no mother; and tai, where matter has spread, there is no emptiness and space in any way. The first bodies are complete without emptiness. Secondly, in the things that have arisen, emptiness exists, and next to it is solid matter.

In this form, Lucretius expounds the teachings of Democritus and Epicurus about atoms and emptiness, emphasizing at the same time the inability to create matter as such.

If the first bodies, solid and without cavities, as I have already said about this, they are undoubtedly eternal. The infinity of matter in space is also connected with the indestructibility and non-creation of matter, that is, with its infinity in time.

The universe itself cannot constrain itself; truth is the law of nature; he wants the boundaries of matter to be formed by emptiness, and matter - by the boundaries of emptiness, the merit of this alternation is the universe without end 39.

Atoms, according to Lucretius, movement is inherent. In solving the problem of movement, he stands on the principles of Epicurus. He tries to substantiate in a certain way deviations from the rectilinear motion of atoms.

What you should know about motion is this: if atoms fall vertically in space due to their own weight, here at an indefinite place and indefinitely they deviate from the path - only so much that the direction is slightly different. If this deviation did not exist, everything would fall into the depths of emptiness, down like raindrops, elements could not collide and combine, and nature would never create anything 40.

It follows from this that the Epicurean parenclitic movement for Lucretius is the source of the particles. Together with the size and shape of atoms, it is the cause of the variegation and variety of things in the world.

He considers the soul to be material, a special combination of air and heat. It flows through the whole body and is formed by the finest and smallest atoms.

What matter the spirit is of and what it consists of, my words will soon be enumerated to you. First of all, I say that the spirit is extremely subtle; the bodies that form it are extremely small. This helps to understand and you yourself will understand that: nothing happens in the world as quickly as what the thought itself represents and forms. From this it is evident that the spirit has the greatest speed than everything that is accessible to the eye; but what is also mobile, it is true that it consists of completely round and smallest bodies 41.

In a similar way, he defends atomistic views in the field of the theory of knowledge, which he also developed in many directions.

In Lucretius' understanding of the atomistic theory, one can already find the outline of evolutionism. He held the view that everything organic arose from inorganic and that complex organic species developed from protozoa.

Lucretius tries to explain in a natural way the emergence of society. He says that initially people lived in a "semi-wild state", without knowing fire and dwelling. Only the development of material culture leads to the fact that the human herd is gradually turning into a society. Naturally, he could not come to a materialistic understanding of the causes of the emergence and development of human society. His desire for a "natural" explanation was limited by both social and epistemological parameters. However, despite this, his views on society were, in particular, in comparison with the then idealistic approach, significant progress. Just like Epicurus, he believed that society, social organization (law, laws) arise as a product of mutual agreement of people (theory of contract): Neighbors then began to unite in friendship, No longer wishing to mend lawlessness and enmity, and children and women the floor was taken under guard, showing with gestures and awkward sounds that everyone should have sympathy for the weak. Although agreement could not be universally recognized, the best and most part of the treaty was faithful to fulfill 42.

The materialism of Lucretius has its own atheistic consequences. Lucretius not only excludes gods from a world in which everything has natural causes, but also opposes all belief in gods. He criticizes the idea of life after death and all other religious myths. Shows that belief in gods arises in a completely natural way, as a product of fear and ignorance of natural causes. In particular, he points to the epistemological origins of the emergence of religious ideas (the disclosure of the social roots of religion was, of course, impossible in his time).

In the field of ethics, Lucretius consistently defends the Epicurean principles of a calm and happy life. Knowledge is the means of achieving happiness. For a person to live happily, he must free himself from fear, in particular from the fear of the gods. He defended these views both from stoic and skeptical criticism, and from their vulgarization in the understanding of some supporters of Epicureanism from the highest circles of society.

The influence and dissemination of the consistently materialistic and logically integral philosophical system of Lucretius was undoubtedly facilitated by the artistic form of presentation. The poem "On Nature" belongs not only to the heights of Roman philosophical thinking, but also to the highly artistic works of its period.

Epicureanism in Roman society was retained for a relatively long time. Even in the era of Aurelian, the Epicurean school was among the most influential philosophical trends. However, when in 313 A.D. e. Christianity becomes the official state religion, a stubborn and merciless struggle begins against Epicureanism, and in particular against the ideas of Lucretius Cara, which ultimately led to the gradual decline of this philosophy.

Roman Epicureanism, in particular the work of Lucretius Cara, marked the pinnacle of materialistic tendencies in Roman philosophy. He became an intermediary link between the materialism of the ancient Greek Stoics and the materialistic trends of modern philosophy.

Skepticism. Another significant philosophical trend in ancient Rome was skepticism. Its main representative, Enesidemus of Knossos (c. I century BC), in his views is close to the philosophy of Pyrrho. The influence that Greek skepticism had on the formation of Enesidem's thoughts is evidenced by the fact that he devoted his main work to the interpretation of the teachings of Pyrrho ("Eight books of Pyrrhic discourses").

Enesidem saw skepticism as a way to overcome the dogmatism of all existing philosophical trends. He paid much attention to the analysis of contradictions in the teachings of other philosophers. The conclusion from his skeptical views is that it is impossible to make any judgments about reality based on immediate sensations. To substantiate this conclusion, he is served by the formulations of the so-called tropes, which have already been mentioned.

The next five tropes, which were added by the successor of Enesidemus Agrippa, further increased doubts about the correctness of the ideas of other philosophical trends.

The most prominent representative of the so-called minor skepticism was Sextus Empiricus. His teaching also comes from Greek skepticism. This is evidenced by the title of one of his works - "Foundations of Pyrrhonism". In other works - "Against dogmatists", "Against mathematicians" - he sets out the methodology of skeptical doubt, based on a critical assessment of the basic concepts of the then knowledge. Critical assessment is directed not only against philosophical concepts, but also against the concepts of mathematics, rhetoric, astronomy, grammar, etc. His skeptical approach did not escape the question of the existence of gods, which led him to atheism.

In his works, he seeks to prove that skepticism is an original philosophy that cannot be confused with other philosophical trends. Sextus Empiricus shows that skepticism differs from all other philosophical currents, each of which recognizes some essences and excludes others, in that it simultaneously questions and admits all essences.

Roman skepticism was a specific expression of the progressive crisis of Roman society. Searches and studies of contradictions between the statements of previous philosophical systems lead skeptics to a broad study of the history of philosophy. And although it is in this direction that skepticism creates a lot of value, on the whole it is already a philosophy that has lost the spiritual strength that lifted ancient thinking to its heights. In essence, skepticism contains more outright rejection than methodological criticism.

Eclecticism. Eclecticism in Rome is much more widespread and significant than in Hellenistic Greece. Its supporters include a number of prominent personalities of the Roman political and cultural life both in the last years of the Roman Republic and in the first period of the empire. The most famous among them was the eminent politician and orator Marcus Thulius Cicero (106-45 BC), the creator of Latin philosophical terminology.

Representatives of Roman eclecticism possessed an enormous amount of knowledge. In a number of cases, they were true encyclopedists of their era. Their combination of various schools of thought was not accidental and unreasonable, a certain conceptual approach was strengthened precisely by a deep knowledge of individual views. The gradual convergence of theory with the field of ethics expressed the general situation in philosophy.

Eclecticism, developing on the basis of academic philosophy, reaches the boundaries of encyclopaedism, encompassing the knowledge of both nature and society. Cicero belonged, perhaps, to the most significant movement of Roman eclecticism, which developed on the basis of Stoic philosophy.

"Stoic" eclecticism in the presentation of Cicero focuses on social issues, and in particular on ethics. His motive was the combination of those parts of different philosophical systems that bring useful knowledge.

Cicero's social views reflect his position as a representative of the upper strata of Roman society during the republican period. He sees the best social order in a combination of three main state forms: monarchy, aristocracy and democracy. He considers the goal of the state to provide citizens with security and free use of property. His theoretical views were largely influenced by his real political activities.

In ethics, he largely adopts the views of the Stoics, pays considerable attention to the problems of virtue set forth by the Stoics. He considers man to be a rational being, which has something divine in itself. He calls virtue the overcoming of all life's adversities by willpower. Philosophy in this matter provides a person with invaluable services. Each of the philosophical directions comes to the achievement of virtue in its own way. Therefore, Cicero recommends to "combine" everything that is the contribution of individual schools of thought, all their achievements into one whole. By this, in fact, he defends his eclecticism.

Neoplatonism. The progressive crisis of Roman society in the last years of the republic and in the first years of the empire is naturally reflected in philosophy. Mistrust in the rational development of the world, to a greater or lesser extent manifested in various philosophical directions, together with the increasing influence of Christianity, more and more strengthened the multiplying signs of mysticism. The irrational movements of this era tried in various ways to adapt to the changing role of philosophy. Neo-Pythagorean philosophy, of which Apollonius of Tiana was a typical representative, tried to strengthen itself by returning to the mysticism of numbers, bordering on charlatanism; the philosophy of Philo of Alexandria (30s BC - 50 AD) sought to combine Greek philosophy with the Jewish religion. In both concepts, mysticism appears in a concentrated form.

More interesting was neo-Platonism, which developed in the 3rd-5th centuries AD. e., in the last centuries of the Roman Empire. It is the last integral philosophical movement that arose during the period of antiquity. Neoplatonism takes shape in the same social setting as Christianity. Like the rest of the irrationalist philosophical trends of late antiquity, neo-Platonism, to a certain extent, is a manifestation of the rejection of the rationalism of previous philosophical thinking. It is a specific reflection of social despair and the progressive decay of social relations on which the Roman Empire was based. Its founder was Ammonius Saccas (175-242), and the most prominent representative was Plotinus (205-270) 43.

Plotinus believed that the basis of all that exists is a supersensible, supernatural, over-rational divine principle. All forms of being depend on it. Plotinus declares this principle to be absolute being and says about it that it is unknowable. "This being is and remains God, does not exist outside of him, but is precisely his very identity." (extasis). Everything else that exists in the world is derived from this one true being. Nature, according to Plotinus, was created in such a way that the divine principle (light) penetrates through matter (darkness). Plotinus even creates a certain gradation of existence from external (real, true) to the lowest, subordinate (inauthentic). At the top of this gradation is the divine principle, then - the divine soul, and below all - nature.

Simplifying somewhat, we can say that the divine principle of Plotinus is an absolutization and some deformation of the world of Plato's ideas. Plotinus devotes much attention to the soul. She is for him a certain transition from the divine to the material. The soul is something alien to the material, bodily and external in relation to them. This understanding of the soul distinguishes the views of Plotinus from the views of not only the Epicureans, but also the Greek and Roman Stoics. According to Plotinus, the soul is not organically connected with the body. She is part of the common soul. The bodily is the bond of the soul, worthy only of overcoming. "Plotinus, as it were, pushes aside the bodily, sensual and is not interested in explaining its existence, but only wants to cleanse it from it, so that the universal soul and our soul do not suffer damage." The emphasis on "spiritual" (good) leads him to the complete suppression of all bodily and material (evil). This translates into the preaching of asceticism. When Plotinus speaks of the material and sensible world, he characterizes it as inauthentic being, as non-existent, “having in itself a certain image of being” 46. By its nature, inauthentic being has no form, properties or any signs. This solution to the main philosophical problematics in Plotinus marks his ethics. The principle of goodness is connected with the only truly existing - with the divine mind, or soul. On the contrary, the opposite of good - evil is associated and identified with inauthentic being, that is, with the sensible world. From these positions, Plotinus proceeds to the problems of the theory of knowledge. For him, the only true knowledge is the knowledge of true being, that is, the divine principle. The latter, of course, cannot be comprehended by sensory cognition; it is also not cognizable in a rational way. The only way to approach the divine principle Plotinus considers (as already mentioned) ecstasy, which is achieved only by spiritual effort - mental concentration and suppression of everything bodily.

The philosophy of Plotinus specifically expresses the hopelessness and insolubility of contradictions 47, which become all-encompassing. This is the most expressive harbinger of the end of ancient culture.

Porfiry (c. 232-304) became a direct disciple of Plotinus and the continuer of his teachings. He showed great attention to the study of the works of Plotinus, published and commented on them, compiled a biography of Plotinus. Porfnrius was also engaged in the study of problems of logic, as evidenced by his "Introduction to the categories of Aristotle", which marked the beginning of the dispute about the real existence of the common.

The mystical teaching of Plotinus is continued by two other neo-Platonic schools. One of them is the Syrian school, the founder and most prominent representative of which was Iamblichus (late 3rd - early 4th centuries A.D.). From the surviving part of his great creative heritage, it can be judged that, in addition to the traditional range of problems of neo-Platonic philosophy, he was also occupied with other problems, such as mathematics, astronomy, music theory, etc.

In philosophy, he develops the thoughts of Plotinus concerning the divine principle, mind and soul. Among these Plotinovsky essences, he distinguishes others, transitional ones.

Also noteworthy is his attempt to substantiate ancient polytheism in the spirit of Plotinus' philosophy. Simultaneously with the divine principle as the only truly existing, he recognizes a number of other deities (12 heavenly gods, the number of which he then increases to 36 and further to 360; then there are 72 earthly gods and 42 gods of nature). This is, in fact, a mystical-speculative attempt to preserve the ancient image of the world in the face of the coming Christianity.

Another school of Neoplatonism - Athenian - is represented by Proclus (412-485). His work in a certain sense is the completion and systematization of neo-Platonic philosophy. He fully accepts the philosophy of Plotinus, but in addition to this he publishes and interprets Plato's dialogues, in the comments to which he expresses original observations and conclusions.

It should be noted that Proclus gives the clearest explanation and presentation of the principle of the dialectical triad 48, in which he distinguishes three main points of development: 1. The content of the created in the creator. 2. Separation of the already created from the creator. 3. The return of the created to the creator. The conceptual dialectic of ancient Neoplatonism is marked by mysticism, which reaches its peak in this concept. Both neoplatonic schools deepen and systematically develop the basic ideas of Plotinus' mysticism. This philosophy, with its irrationalism, aversion to everything bodily, emphasis on asceticism and the doctrine of ecstasy, had a significant impact not only on early Christian philosophy, but also on medieval theological thinking. We have traced the emergence and development of ancient philosophy. For the first time practically all the main philosophical problems crystallized in it, the basic ideas about the subject of philosophy were formed and, although not explicitly, the problem was posed, which F. Engels formulated as the main question of philosophy. In ancient philosophical systems, philosophical materialism and idealism were already expressed, which largely influenced subsequent philosophical concepts. V. I. Lenin declared that the history of philosophy has always been an arena of struggle between two main trends - materialism and idealism. The immediacy and, in a sense, the straightforwardness of the philosophical thinking of the ancient Greeks and Romans make it possible to understand and more easily understand the essence of the most important problems that accompany the development of philosophy from its inception to the present day. In the philosophical thinking of antiquity, in a much clearer form than it happens later, worldview clashes and struggles are projected. The initial unity of philosophy and the expanding special scientific knowledge, their systemic allocation explain very clearly the relationship between philosophy and special (special) sciences. Philosophy permeates the entire spiritual life of ancient society, it was an integral factor in ancient culture. The wealth of ancient philosophical thinking, the formulation of problems and their solution were the source from which the philosophical thought of subsequent millennia drew.

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Option 10.

Topic: Philosophy of Ancient Rome

Savelicheva Irina

Introduction

The importance of ancient philosophy

Conclusion

Introduction

The philosophy of Ancient Rome, like the philosophy of Hellenism, is mainly ethical in nature. It directly affects the political life of society. In its very center of attention are the problems of reconciling the interests of various groups, as well as issues of achieving the highest good, not to mention the development of life rules and so on. In all these conditions, the philosophy of the so-called "Stoics" received the greatest distribution and influence. They developed questions about the rights and obligations of the individual, as well as the nature of the relationship between the individual and the state, adding legal and moral norms to their conclusions, while the Roman flock sought to contribute not only to the education of a disciplined soldier, but also, of course, a citizen. The largest representative of the Stoic school is Seneca, who lived from 5 BC to 65 AD. Seneca was not only a thinker and statesman, he was also a mentor to Emperor Nero himself. It was he who recommended the emperor to adhere rather to moderation and a republican spirit in his reign. Thanks to this, Seneca achieved that he was "ordered to die", so he, fully following all his philosophical principles, surrounded by his admirers, and opened his veins.

At the same time, the most important task of personality formation, according to Seneca, is the achievement of virtue. But the study of philosophy is not only theoretical studies, it is also the actual implementation of virtue. Seneca was sure that philosophy is not in words, but in deeds, since it forms and shapes the spirit, orders life, controls actions, and also indicates what should and should not be done.

Specificity and significance of ancient Roman philosophy

The significance of ancient Roman philosophy should be seen, first of all, in the fact that it served as a link between ancient Greek and medieval European philosophies. This happened because during the period of its development, ancient Roman philosophy borrowed ideas and concepts from Greek thought and adapted them to philosophizing in Latin. Western European philosophy of the Middle Ages and subsequent eras was built on the foundation of predominantly ancient Roman philosophy, which preserved, even in an impoverished and distorted form, the content of the highest achievements of Greek philosophy. As you know, the Latin language became for many centuries the European language of philosophizing, and the philosophical terminology expressed in it acquired a universal character. antique philosophy ethics

Similarities and Differences Between Roman Stoics and Epicureans

The similarities between the Roman Stoics and the Epicureans lay in their orientation towards life by nature, isolation and autarchy, serenity and apathy, in their ideas about the materiality of gods and souls, human mortality and his return to the world whole. But the understanding by the Epicureans of nature as a material universe remained, and by the Stoics as of reason; justice as a social contract - by the Epicureans, and as a duty to the whole world - by the Stoics; the recognition of free will by the Epicureans and a higher order and predetermination by the Stoics; the idea of the linearity of the development of the world among the Epicureans and the cyclical development of the Stoics; orientation towards personal friendship among the Epicureans and participation in public affairs among the Stoics. For the Stoics, the source of happiness is reason, and the basic concept is virtue; for the Epicureans, respectively, feelings and pleasure.

Man is an integral part of the universe, therefore the main ethical principle in Stoicism is the idea of obedience to the world law, to fate. From these positions, the Stoics criticized the Epicureans for their doctrine of human freedom, believing that all human actions obey the world law, which is absolutely inevitable and opposing it is a waste of energy.

Compared to the Epicureans, the Stoics were generally quite pessimistic about our ability to control external goods. Therefore, they recommended that each person make himself independent from external circumstances. If we want to ensure our personal happiness, then we must learn to be as independent as possible from uncontrollable external factors and learn to live inside our inner world, which we can control.

The importance of ancient philosophy

Philosophy, which was formed in the era of Antiquity, preserved and multiplied theoretical knowledge for more than a millennium, and also served as a regulator of social life. She explained the laws of society and nature, while creating the prerequisites for the further development of philosophical knowledge. Nevertheless, after Christianity began to spread on the territory of the Roman Empire, ancient philosophy underwent a rather serious reworking.

The term "antiquity" comes from the Latin word antiquus - ancient. It is customary to call them a special period in the development of ancient Greece and Rome, as well as those lands and peoples that were under their cultural influence. The chronological framework of this period, like any other cultural and historical phenomenon, cannot be precisely determined, however, they largely coincide with the time of existence of the ancient states themselves: from the 11th-9th centuries. BC, the time of the formation of ancient society in Greece and BC. - the death of the Roman Empire under the blows of the barbarians.

Common to the ancient states were the ways of social development and a special form of property - ancient slavery, as well as the form of production based on it. Common was their civilization with a common historical and cultural complex. This does not deny, of course, the presence in the life of ancient societies of indisputable features and differences. The main, pivotal in ancient culture were religion and mythology. For the ancient Greeks, mythology was the content and form of their worldview, their perception of the world, it was inseparable from the life of this society. Then - the ancient slavery. It was not only the basis of the economy and social life, it was also the basis of the worldview of the people of that time. Further, it is necessary to single out science and art culture as the pivotal phenomena in ancient culture. When studying the culture of ancient Greece and Rome, it is necessary first of all to concentrate on these dominants of ancient culture.

Ancient culture is a unique phenomenon that has given general cultural values in literally all areas of spiritual and material activity. Only three generations of cultural figures, whose life practically fits into the classical period of the history of Ancient Greece, laid the foundations of European civilization and created role models for millennia to come. Distinctive features of ancient Greek culture: spiritual diversity, mobility and freedom - allowed the Greeks to reach unprecedented heights before peoples imitate the Greeks, build a culture according to the models they created.

The main tenets of ancient ethics

Ethics was considered the main philosophical discipline, consideration of the issues of "physics" and "logic" was subordinate to ethical problems. On the whole, this coincided with the general trends in the development of Hellenistic philosophy. After all, philosophy was then considered not so much as a doctrine of causes and principles, but as an instruction in the art of life, in achieving happiness and equanimity. In general, we can talk about some simplification, vulgarization of ancient philosophy in the Roman period.

In the early writings of ancient scholars, ethics was inextricably linked with philosophy. These works gave greater preference to the problems of the structure of the world, the cosmic nature of man, his place in this cosmos. Then, when many Greek cities became independent city-states, in which a democratic system was established, scientists began to pay attention to the moral and ethical problems of human behavior in society and gradually antique ethics began to be defined as an independent science. It happened approximately in the 4th century. BC e.

The sophists became the founders of ethical teachings. These were the teachers of philosophy who proclaimed man to be the measure of good and evil. According to the sophists, there are no laws in nature that limit the will of a person, all moral and ethical values proceed from the interests of him. Protagoras became a prominent representative of the sophists.

Socrates criticized the sophists, who believed that moral laws exist, and a person's duty to correlate his system of values with them. Socrates believed that morality is directly related to knowledge, he became the founder of ethical rationalism.

Plato founded a systemic ethical teaching based on the postulate that the human soul resides in an ideal world with high values until it enters the physical body. Each person is born with a soul endowed with 3 properties - will, feelings and reason, and one property is always predominant. And if a person is engaged in business, correlated with the predominant property of the soul, then he will be happy, and society as a whole is ideal. According to Plato, justice should also be inherent in society, when its layers do not interfere in each other's life.

For the first time the term "ethics" is introduced by Aristotle. In contrast to Plato, he believed that the moral and ethical qualities of a person are formed not in the other world, but under the influence of real social life. Happiness can be achieved by comprehending the basic principles of ethics. In every person there is an unreasonable and reasonable component, it balances their mind and its development gives the right direction to these components. Ethics according to Aristotle is an experience of social life.

The turning point of ethical teachings, directed to the social life of man, was the appearance of the works of the ancient Greek materialist Epicurus. He substantiated a teaching aimed at the person himself. He considered the main thing in life to be the achievement of happiness through bodily pleasures, knowledge and wisdom. All this, according to Epicurus, should be balanced in a person.

Almost simultaneously with the works of Epicurus, stoicism appears, a teaching developed by Seneca and Marcus Aurelius. The Stoics believed that man should not be torn from nature. He is not able to change the laws of nature, and everyone's happiness depends on an internal attitude to what is happening. By developing the inner world, a person can come to harmony with nature and happiness.

Conclusion

Ancient Greek and Roman philosophy had a decisive influence on the entire history of Western and partly even world philosophy up to the present day. We owe the very term "philosophy" precisely to antiquity. The heyday of ancient Greek philosophy falls on the 5th - 4th centuries. BC e., and its echoes died away for another millennium. In Byzantium and the countries of Islam, the dominant influence of Greek philosophy continued throughout the next millennium; then, during the Renaissance and humanism, and in Europe, there was a revival of Greek philosophy, which led to creative new formations, ranging from Platonism and Aristotelianism of the Renaissance and ending with the influence of Greek philosophy on the entire development of European philosophical thought.

German philosopher I.G. Fichte stated: “Man is destined for life in society; he is not completely human and contradicts his essence if he lives as a hermit. "

Do you agree with this statement? Give a detailed justification of your position.

I agree with this statement. Since a person should live in society, and not be renounced from it. Man is created with a need for communication. It can be fully revealed only in society. Living as a hermit, he buries his essence. A hermit man is not a man, and not even an animal, even animals live in flocks, groups, etc. They do not live for themselves, not to mention people! And man, by nature, is supposed to think not only about himself, but also about his environment, since he is the most intelligent creature on the planet.

Test tasks

1.This ancient thinker considered "man to be the measure of all things":

a) Protagoras

2. Indicate a thinker in whose opinion collective ideas play a leading role in the development of society:

c) E. Durkheim

3. Plato wrote his works in the form:

c) dialogues

a) empiricism

5. The unique originality of any phenomenon, being, person, in which it acts as a characteristic that acts as a counterweight to the general, typical

c) individuality.

Literature

1. Skirbekk G., Guilier N. History of philosophy.

Internet resources:

1.www.studfiles.ru/dir/cat10/subj171/file16320/view156439.html

2.www.domowner.ru/5.htm

3. www. domowner. ru/2. htm

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Virtues are the foundation of teaching

When the Greek state collapsed, Hellenic Stoicism, as a direction promoting conscious self-control over weaknesses, impulses, submission to common sense, received its further development in the Roman Stoic teaching.

Lucius Annea Seneca (4 BC - 65 AD) is considered the most prominent stoic of Roman philosophical thought. The young man was born in the middle class, received a good education.

Seneca followed strict laws of abstinence. But, despite his ascetic views, Lucius made a successful political career, was known as an orator, poet, and writer.

The Stoic's reasoning had a patriotic essence in many respects - he talked about the Motherland, the foreign land, came to the conclusion that there is no foreign land, all of it is native. Seneca often wondered about state life - a personal duty to the state and to himself. His treatise "On the brevity of life" is devoted to these considerations.

As a grown man, Lucius was honored with the great honor of being the tutor of the future Roman emperor-tyrant Nero, who was known for his special cruelty. Especially for him, the Stoic wrote a treatise "On Benefits", which he called to listen to his own conscience. Seneca said "that knowledge of kindness is not enough, you still need to be able to do good." But the teacher did not manage to defeat the pupil's evil inclination. Nero forced Lucius to commit suicide.

The philosophy of the doctrine spread to the noble circles. Emperor Marcus Aurelius is considered the last Stoic of ancient Stoicism. For the then slave-owning Rome, it was extremely important that at such a high state level (in the person of Emperor Aurelius), the makings of democracy appeared.

In classifying virtues, the Stoics divided them into two groups.

Personal virtues: mercy, honor, purposefulness, friendliness, culture, thoughtfulness. And also thrift, hard work, wisdom, health, endurance, honesty.

Social virtues: wealth, justice, mercy, prosperity, trust, luck. Also - joy, fun, freedom, nobility. And patience, generosity, faith in God, security, masculinity, fertility, hope.

Stoicism as a school of humility, moderation

The direction of Stoicism became so close for the ancient Roman, Greek citizens that philosophical thought continued to develop it until the end of the ancient period.

Epictetus was an outstanding follower of the Stoic school. By origin, the thinker was a slave, which was reflected in his philosophical views. Epictetus proposed to abolish slavery, to equalize all people. He believed that people are equal by birth, castes were invented to support future generations of noble families. A person must independently achieve respect, and not inherit it. Moreover, not to inherit the absence of any rights. This ideology was not characteristic of the philosophy of ancient Greece.

Epictetus considered the philosophy of equality, humility and moderation to be a way of life, even a science with the help of which a person acquires self-control, does not pursue the achievement of worldly pleasures, is fearless before death. The Stoic reduced the meaning of his reasoning to contentment with what is, and not by wanting more. This lifestyle will never lead to disappointment. In short, Epictetus called his life motto apathy or obedience to God. Humility, acceptance of fate as it is, is the highest spiritual freedom.

Skepticism of the ancient Roman philosophers

A phenomenal manifestation of philosophical thought is skepticism. It is characteristic of the sages of both the Greek and Roman ancient world, which once again proves the intertwining of two opposing philosophies of that era. The similarity is especially pronounced in the period of late antiquity, when there is a social, political decline, the collapse of great civilizations.

The main idea of skepticism is the denial of any statements, ultimate dogmas, rejection of theories of other philosophical movements. Adepts argued that disciplines are contradictory, they exclude themselves, each other. Only the teaching of skeptics has an original peculiarity - it simultaneously accepts other opinions and doubts them.

Ancient Rome is known for such skeptics: Enesidemus, Agrippa, Empiricus.

Epicureanism - the path of adaptation to the world

The philosophical concept of ethics again unites two rival camps - the Greeks, the Romans.

Initially, the Hellenistic thinker Epicurus (342-270 BC) founded a philosophical movement, the goal of which was to achieve a happy, carefree life, devoid of sorrows. Epicurus taught not to modify reality, but to adapt to it. For this, the philosopher has developed three essential principles:

Ethical - with the help of ethics, a person achieves happiness.
Physical - with the help of physics, a person comprehends the natural world, which allows him not to feel fear of him. He helps the first principle.
Canonical - with the help of the methodology of scientific knowledge, the implementation of the first principles of Epicureanism is available.

Epicurus believed that the organization of the happy requires not the unhindered manifestation of knowledge, but their implementation in practice, but within predetermined boundaries.

Paradoxically, the ancient Roman thinker Lucretius became a figurative follower of Epicurus. He was radical in his statements, which at the same time aroused the delight and anger of his contemporaries. Discussing with opponents (especially skeptics), the Epicurean relied on science, arguing the importance of its existence: “If there is no science, then every day we observe the rise of a new sun. But we know it’s only one. ” He criticized Plato's theory of the transmigration of souls: "If a person ever dies anyway, then it doesn't matter where his soul goes." Lucretius was puzzled by the emergence of civilizations: “At first, humanity was wild, everything changed with the advent of fire. The formation of society can be attributed to the period when people learned to negotiate with each other. "

Lucretius became the representative of the Hellenism of Epicurus, criticizing the perverted customs of the Romans.

Rhetoric of Ancient Rome

The brightest rhetorician of ancient Roman philosophy was Mark Tullius Cicero. He considered rhetoric to be the basis of the thought process. The activist wanted to "make friends" the Roman thirst for virtue with the Greek skillful philosophizing. As a born orator and active politician, Mark called for the creation of a just state.

Cicero believed that it was available when the three only correct forms of government were mixed: monarchy, democracy, aristocracy. Compliance with a mixed constitution will ensure the so-called "great equality" by the sage.

It was Cicero who introduced society to the concept of "humanitus", which means "humanity, humanity, philosophy of common sense." The thinker said that the concept is based on moral norms, capable of making every person a full member of society.

His knowledge in the scientific field is so great that Mark was recognized as an encyclopedic philosopher of antiquity.

The philosopher's opinion about ethics and morality was as follows: “Every science comprehends virtue in its own extraordinary way. Therefore, every educated person should familiarize himself with various methods of cognition, test them. Any everyday problems are solved by willpower. "

Philosophical and religious movements

Ancient Roman traditional philosophers in antiquity actively continued their activities. The doctrine of Plato was very popular. But the philosophical and religious schools became a new-fangled trend of that time, a connecting bridge between the West and the East. The teachings asked a global question about the relationship, opposition of matter and spirit.

The most interesting trend was Neopythagoreanism, whose representatives philosophized about the contradictory nature of the world, the unity of God. The Neopythagoreans studied numbers from the mystical side, created a whole doctrine of the magic of numbers. Apollonius of Tyana became an outstanding follower of this philosophical school.

Intellectual personalities clung to the teachings of Philo of Alexandria. The sage's main idea was to merge Platonism with Judaism. Philo explained that Jehovah created the Logos, who then created the world.

Religious worldviews were distinguished by primitive superstitious polytheism, where every phenomenon had a double.

The cult of vestal priestesses, the chaste guardians of the state, was highly respected.

The philosophy of Ancient Rome (from the 3rd century BC) developed under the strong influence of Greek culture. It was represented mainly by three currents: Stoicism, Epicureanism and Skepticism. Stoic philosophy (Seneca Epictetus and Marcus Aurelius) played the leading role among them.

Seneca("Uncle of Christianity") was the most prominent figure in Roman stoicism... He held the idea that everything in this world is at the mercy of rigid necessity and predetermination. God as the supreme power ("active mind") gives the world integrity, order and purposefulness. God is what everything depends on and emanates from. God is nature, reason, cause, and destiny. The world is literally bound by the iron chains of necessity, or fate. Consequently, human freedom can consist only in the awareness of this need and voluntary submission to it. But since the world is reasonable, then freedom should also consist in submission only to reasonable necessity. In all other cases, freedom will certainly mean slavery. Obedience to fate is the lot of every person if he does not want to fall into slavery. Living happily means for Seneca to live in harmony with the world around him, obediently submitting to it.

The existence of a person is always short, fleeting, therefore one should not, according to the philosopher, strive for dubious goals: the accumulation of wealth and the acquisition of power in society. It is much more important to perfect your soul, overcome the fear of impending death and find peace. It is best to seek shelter in a "quiet backwater" than to expose yourself to the "blows of waves" in the stormy and always restless ocean of life. Seneca believed that relations in society should be imbued with moral values. Society is a single whole, and it must be supported by love, compassion and care of people for each other. As in the world as a whole, it is impossible to change the order of things in society, so everyone must treat each other as comrades in forced slavery. of this circumstance, Seneca formulated the “golden rule” of morality: “Treat those below you as you would like to be treated by those above you.” All people are in reality slaves to fate. given to dispose of his soul and his thoughts. In this sense, for a person and prison is not an obstacle, Seneca naively believed. Freedom of spirit - this is what attracts a person to the truly great and eternal. "

Epictetus(a former slave) emphasized that the main task of any philosophy is to help a person arrange his life correctly. It is almost impossible to change the world around us, and therefore all that remains is to take care of the relationship of people with each other. You should submit to the order of things in the world and focus on the states of your soul. According to Epicteus, it is important first of all to honor the gods and believe in them, not to interfere in current events, but to obey them. The world was created by God and therefore is reasonable, which is why each individual person can only exist for the sake of the whole and obey it.

Marcus Aurelius(the Roman emperor), like all Stoics, believed that human freedom is limited only by the space of his thought. This is the only thing that is in his power. The main task of all human actions should be subordination to the cosmic order of things. Man is just a particle of the endless world flow. His whole life is a short moment, a struggle and a wandering in a foreign land. Life is smoke, and only philosophy is able to give a person consolation and tranquility. If fate rules, then why resist it? Man is mortal, his life is completely incomparable with the endless and rapid flow of time. Both the longest and the shortest life are equally vulnerable to this all-devouring and ruthless stream. There is only one choice left: to live in the present, since the past has been lived, and the future is unknown.

Epicureanism was represented in Ancient Rome mainly by "the work of the philosopher-poet Tita Lucrezia Kara(poem "On the nature of things"). Lucretius was a consistent supporter of the teachings of Democritus and Epicurus, defending their atomistic theory. In his poem, he wrote about the gods, about the soul and its properties, about the physiology of man and his knowledge of the world. For Lucretius, matter is the world of moving atoms. It is uncreate and indestructible by anyone, infinite in time and space. Atoms, as some kind of "building blocks" of the world, have different sizes and shapes, which explains the diversity of the world. The human soul is also material "being created from air and heat. Spirit, according to Lucretius, is very subtle and has the greatest speed.

Studying social life, Lucretius recorded the presence of progress in it. So, he noted that in the primitive state, people were essentially in a wild state and did not yet have either fire or dwelling. Over time, the primitive herd acquired the characteristics of a society. It gradually developed such important institutions as morality and law. However, man's dependence on natural and social forces still remains, which gives rise to religious faith. Ignorance and fear gave birth to gods, the Roman philosopher emphasized. To make people happy, they must be relieved of their fear of the gods, and various sciences (including philosophy) can help them in this matter.

The philosophy of Lucretius, like all Epicureanism, focused on explaining the world from the standpoint of common sense and natural science. The teachings of this ancient enlightener brought people knowledge and self-confidence, helped them overcome prejudices and delusions.

Roman skepticism was represented by several famous thinkers. Most notable among them was Sextus Empiricus, a physician by profession. He made a great contribution to the study of the history of skepticism and its systematization (works "Against Scientists", "Pyrrhic foundations"). As in Greece, Roman skepticism expressed the crisis of society and carried in itself a charge of criticism of knowledge.

In ancient Rome, eclecticism also took place, combining heterogeneous teachings and schools. Mark Thulius Cicero, an outstanding politician and orator, philosopher, stood out among its authors. In his work, he turned primarily to social issues, being committed to the best traditions of Greek philosophy. According to Cicero, the main task of philosophy is "cultivating the soul of a person", teaching him the art of a correct life and the formation of the qualities of a citizen. Philosophy is wisdom, knowledge of good and evil, and therefore none of the fools can ever become a happy person.

Ancient Roman society had a rich science and culture at that time. The poets Virgil, Horace and Ovid gained worldwide fame. In Rome, were erected grandiose architectural complexes of the Colosseum and the Pantheon. That time gave famous historians - Josephus Flavius, Pliny the Younger, Tacitus. In the first half of the 2nd century A.D. the outstanding astronomer, mathematician and philosopher Claudius Ptolemy lived in Rome. The famous physician Galen ("Roman Hippocrates"), the author of the doctrine of the movement of blood in the human body, also worked in Rome.

The philosophy of Ancient Rome completes the development of philosophical thought in the era of crisis and the collapse of the slave-holding formation. In the depths of this philosophy and on its "fragments" there were ideological prerequisites for the emergence of early Christianity as a new religion, a picture of the surrounding world and a person in it.

CONTROL QUESTIONS

1. What processes and phenomena of social life "nourished" the development of philosophical thought in the Ancient World?

2. What can you say about the subject field (circle of problems) of ancient philosophy? What is typical for him?

3. What did the cosmocentrism of ancient Greek philosophy mean?

4. Can we talk about the presence in ancient philosophy of elements of scientific knowledge about man?

5. What is the ideological and methodological significance of ancient Greek philosophy?

REFERENCES ON THE TOPIC

1. Asmus V.F. Ancient philosophy. - 2nd ed. - M., 1976.

2 Bogomolov A.S. Ancient philosophy. - M .: Publishing house of Moscow State University, 1985.

3. Dzhokhadze D.V. The main stages in the development of ancient philosophy. - M., 1977.

4. Ivanov GR History of Ethics of the Ancient World. - L .: Leningrad State University, 1980.5 Kessidy F.Kh. From myth to logos (Formation of Greek philosophy). - M .: Thought, 1972. "

6. Kuhn N.A. Legends and myths of Ancient Greece. - M .: Vika-press, Arc-tos, 1992.

7. Losev AF History of ancient philosophy in a synopsis. - M. Thought, 1989.

8. Frolov ED Torch of Prometheus. Essays on ancient social thought. - 2nd edition - L. Leningrad State University, 1991.

9. Chanyshev AN A course of lectures on ancient philosophy: Textbook. textbook for philosophy. fac. and departments of un-tov. - M .: Higher school, 1981

MEDIEVAL PHILOSOPHY: ORIGINS FEATURES, CONTENTS

Parameter name	Meaning
Topic of the article:	THE PHILOSOPHY OF ANCIENT ROME
Category (thematic category)	Regilia

Roman philosophy arose in the 2nd - 1st centuries. BC. with what the Greek ends up at the same time - with eclecticism(ᴛ.ᴇ. philosophical current, ĸᴏᴛᴏᴩᴏᴇ does not create its own philosophical system. Based on a single principle, and does not join the views of any one philosopher, but takes from various systems what it considers correct, and less complete whole).

The deep consistency in the development of certain philosophical positions, inherent in the Greek thinkers of the "classical" era, is replaced by a superficial reconciliation of various principles, the convergence of warring schools and currents. The materialistic school of Epicurus finds numerous followers in the late Hellenistic period and penetrates into Rome. Its remarkable representative on Roman soil was the poet Lucretius Carus.
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One of the directions of the Aristotle school associated with the study of nature was also inclined to the views of the materialists. These were the followers of Straton, nicknamed the "physicist".

Although Greece was enslaved by Rome, Rome was conquered spiritually by Greece.

Roman philosophy splits into Latin-speaking and Greek-speaking. In addition to the rich Latin-language Roman philosophical literature, the Greek language was considered respected and revered in Rome, the knowledge of which was a sign of culture and education.

At the root of the Roman - Latin artistic - mythological and religious worldview lay primitive superpolitheism. In the naive view of the superstitious Roman, every object and every phenomenon had its own counterpart - a spirit, its own deity (penates, laras and mana).

In ancient Rome, the cult of ancestors was developed - manism. The role of magic was great. Knowledge of magical actions and spells was the work of a special Roman class - the priests, who were united in a college, and enjoyed greater influence than the priests in Greece. The collegium of pontiffs was especially influential. Its chairman was considered the high priest of Rome (high pontiff). Fortune-telling priests played an important role in Roman life:

Priests - augurs (predicted the future by the flight of birds);

Priests - haruspics (predicted the future by the insides of sacrificial animals).

The classical Roman pantheon was influenced by the classical Greek pantheon. At the same time, many gods of Rome are identified and adopt the features of the gods of Greece, for example: Jupiter - Zeus, Juno - Hera, Minerva - Athena, Venus - Aphrodite, etc.

The traditional foundations of the Roman community were:

Courage, perseverance, honesty, loyalty, dignity, moderation, obedience to military discipline, law; age-old customs, veneration of family and national gods.

Rome rested on four cornerstones:

Ø Libertas - the independence of the individual and his freedom to defend his interests within the framework of the law.

Ø Justitia- a set of legal provisions protecting the dignity of a person in accordance with his social status.

Ø Fides - fidelity to duty, which is a moral guarantee of the implementation of laws.

Ø Pietas- a reverent duty to the gods, the homeland and fellow citizens, requiring always to give preference to their interests, and not to our own.

In order to become the ruler of the world, the Romans, relying on the values listed above, developed the main value, albeit severe, but sublime: virtus - civic valor and courage to be, no matter what.

The political decline of Greece, and then of the Hellenistic states, led to the fact that Greek philosophical thought began to increasingly focus on Rome. An educated Greek becomes a frequent visitor to the chambers of influential and wealthy Romans. Greek education plays an important role in educating future statesmen of the Roman Republic.

It is in Greek philosophy that the ideas of the historical role of Rome are hatched, the signs of its all-world domination, as an extremely important rationale to be submitted to. The Stoic school, which provided a philosophical foundation for this view, had many followers among the Roman aristocracy.

The success of this school is due to the fact. What is she. Not caring too much about the contradictions that arose, eclectically 1 combined various popular motives of Greek philosophy into one whole. In the II - I centuries. BC (Middle Stoi period), this doctrine borrows a number of provisions from the philosophy of Plato and Aristotle.

PANETIUS (Rhodes)(180-110 BC) - moved to Rome, where he brought the old man's ideal of the sage closer to the political interests of the Roman aristocracy. He emphasized the importance of practical wisdom and virtue, and did not require the sage to renounce the surrounding life and, in particular, from state activities.

Eclectic - one who does not create his own philosophical system based on a single principle, and does not join the views of any one philosopher, but takes from various systems what he finds correct, and connects all this into one more or less complete whole.

The highest good is ϶ᴛᴏ life in accordance with nature; man's natural aspirations lead him to virtue.

For Panethi, fate (tikhe) is only a useful regulator of human life, an educator of overly unbridled and passionate natures.
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He expressed doubts about the immortality of the soul and had a negative attitude towards belief in astrology and the possibility of predicting the future.

POSIDONIUM FROM ALAMEA(135-50 BC) - a student of Panethius, for a long time headed the philosophical school on about. Rhodes. He returned to the views of the old school - about the impending destruction of the world in fire, to the belief in the immortality of the soul and the existence of demons, to the doctrine of the dependence of human life and fate on the location of the stars, etc. The ethical views of Posidonius are closely related to Plato's concept of the human soul. The soul is the arena of struggle between two principles - spiritual and bodily. Everything that comes from the body deserves condemnation, for the flesh is the prison of the soul, its fetters. He believes in the mystical pre-existence of the soul before its incarnation in the body.

Posidonius continued to develop, coming from Aristotle and the peripatetics, the doctrine of the state system (as a mixed form), based on a combination of the principles of monarchy, aristocracy and democracy.

CICERON MARK TULLIUS(106 - 43 BC) - outlined the foundations of various philosophical systems and developed Latin philosophical terminology.

q The human ideal of Cicero -“The first man of the republic”, “conciliator”, “guardian and guardian” in the era of crises, combining Greek philosophical theory and Roman political (oratory) practice. He considered himself an example of such a figure.

q Philosophical ideal of Cicero - a combination of theoretical skepticism, which does not know the truth, admitting only probability, with practical stoicism, which strictly follows a moral duty that coincides with the public good and the world law.

q The oratorical ideal of Cicero is"Abundance", the conscious possession of all means capable of both interest, and convince, and captivate the listener; these funds are folded into three styles - high, medium and simple. Each style has its own degree of lexicon purity and syntax harmony.

q Cicero's political ideal - A "mixed state structure" (a state combining elements of monarchy, aristocracy and democracy; the model of which he considered the Roman Republic of the III-II centuries BC), supported by the "consent of the estates", "like-mindedness of all worthy".

Key thoughts:

Ø To each his own.

Ø Probabilistic knowledge is the limit of human understanding.

Ø Everyone tends to be delusional, but only the unreasonable persists in delusions.

Ø Friends are known in trouble.

Ø Paper will endure everything.

Ø For me, my conscience means more than the speech of everyone.

Ø The welfare of the people is the highest law.

Ø Where it is good, there is the fatherland.

Ø Oh, the times! Oh, morals!

Ø Life is short, but glory must be eternal.

Ø As a person is, such is his speech.

Ø Eloquence - ϶ᴛᴏ light that brightens the mind.

Ø It is not enough to master wisdom, one must also be able to use it.

Ø Some opposites give birth to others.

Ø Habit is second nature.

Ø Labor dulls pain.

TITUS LUCREZIUS CAR(98-55 BC) - ancient Roman philosopher, poet; continuer of the teachings of Epicurus; introduced the concept of "matter".

Ø In the poem "On the Nature of Things", he developed and promoted the materialistic doctrine of Epicurus, seeking to rid people of religious superstitions and fear of gods and the afterlife generated by ignorance. Denying any interference of the gods in the life of people, he gave a natural explanation for the origin and development of the universe and humanity.

Ø He argued that everything consists of indivisible ʼʼbeginningsʼʼ, ᴛ.ᴇ. atoms that are not created or destroyed. They have a certain shape, weight and motion inseparable from matter.

Moving in the void surrounding them, like dust particles in a sunbeam, and spontaneously deviating from the direct direction, the atoms, according to a certain law, combine and form everything that exists - from stars to human souls, which Lucretius also considered material and, therefore, dying simultaneously with the body.

Having disintegrated in one place, the atoms combine in another, forming new worlds and new living beings. For this reason, everything is eternal and infinite.

Ø He tried to give a natural scientific explanation of the origin of man and society, developing without the intervention of the gods.

After the formation of the earth, from dampness and warmth, plants arose, then animals, many of which were imperfect and became extinct, and, finally, man. At first, people were wild as animals, but gradually, thanks to experience and observation, they learned how to make fire, build dwellings, and cultivate the land.

People began to unite in families, and families began to unite for mutual support in society. This made it possible to develop language, sciences, arts, crafts, ideas of law and justice. But kings appeared, the most powerful began to seize and divide the land; property and a lust for wealth arose, leading to wars and crime.

Key thoughts:

Ø Out of nothing (without nothing) nothing happens.

Ø Nowadays, not with the bright arrows of the day and not with the rays of the sun, it is necessary to dispel the horrors and darkening of the spirit, but by studying and interpreting the laws of nature.

Ø The spirit is strong with joy.

Ø Along with the passage of time, the meaning of things changes.

Ø If the feelings are not true, then our whole mind will turn out to be false.

Ø After true death there will be no second you.

Ø The soul is born together with the body.

Ø Cognition of the truth is generated in us by feelings.

Ø Whatever a patient with jaundice looks at, everything seems yellowish to him.

Ø Something bitter emanates from the source of pleasure.

Ø My science is ϶ᴛᴏ to live and be well.

The leading philosophical trend in Rome in the 1st - 2nd centuries. BC. was stoicism(New Standing) presented by Seneca, Epictetus and Marcus Aurelius. Late Stoicism dealt mainly with issues of ethics, and this ethics could not be more suited to the conditions of a world empire.

The Stoics tirelessly preached that each person is only a part of a huge organism, the good of which is much more important than the good of its members. For this reason, everyone should, without struggle and protest, meet everything sent to him by fate. Since external circumstances - wealth, position, health, freedom and life itself - do not depend on a person, he should consider them indifferent to himself and accept them with complete indifference. The only duty of a person is to improve in wisdom and virtue, fulfillment of duty to society and maintain peace of mind in any position. Stoicism did not open any other perspectives to its followers. Everything moves in closed cycles, there is nothing new in the world and cannot be. The immortality of the soul was also denied in essence - the soul after death decays, like a body, and its elements are drawn again into the endless cycle of nature.

Lucius Anneus Seneca(4 - 65 years) - Roman philosopher, poet and statesman; educator of Nero. He possessed extensive knowledge, the ability to penetrate deeply into nature and man, and was an excellent stylist.

Philosophy is a moral and religious guide in life. Proceeding from the moral weakness of man, Seneca demanded moral rigor in relation to himself and reasonable, compassionate indulgence towards his neighbor.

The highest virtue is loyalty to oneself.

The personality and works of Seneca contributed to the fact that the influence of Stoicism on the social and literary life of Rome, on legislation, legal duties and government, even on Christianity, was extremely strong and lasting.

Key thoughts:

Ø Philosophy is both healing and pleasant at the same time.

Ø There is no slavery more shameful than slavery of the spirit.

Ø The fate of the one who agrees with it leads, the one who resists - drags.

Ø Reason - ϶ᴛᴏ is nothing but a part of the divine spirit, immersed in the body of people.

Ø Soul - ϶ᴛᴏ God who found shelter in the human body.

Ø The first hour of life reduced life by an hour.

Ø It is better to learn too much than not learn anything.

Ø Caesar is not allowed much precisely because everything is allowed to him.

Ø Before you say anything to others, say it to yourself.

Ø Great destiny - great slavery.

Ø The shortest path to wealth is through contempt for wealth.

Ø Drunkenness - ϶ᴛᴏ voluntary madness.

Ø After death, everything stops, even herself.

EPICTET(about 50 - 138 AD) - an ancient Greek philosopher; slave in Rome, then a freedman; founded a philosophical school in Nikopol. He preached the ideas of stoicism: the main task of philosophy is to teach to distinguish between what is in our power to do and what is not. We are not subject to everything that is outside of us, the bodily, the external world.
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Not these things themselves, but only our ideas about them make us happy or unhappy; but our thoughts, aspirations, and, consequently, our happiness are subject to us.

All people are children of one God, and a person's entire life must be in connection with God, which makes a person able to courageously resist the vicissitudes of life.

Key thoughts:

Ø Earthly man - ϶ᴛᴏ a weak soul burdened with a corpse.

Ø The sadness of another - ϶ᴛᴏ someone else's ...

Ø It should always be remembered that we cannot control events, but must adapt to them.

Ø In no case call yourself a Philosopher and do not talk about philosophical rules and laws in front of the ignorant.

MARCUS AURELY ANTONINUS (121-180) - Roman emperor from the Antonine dynasty, philosopher, representative of late Stoicism, follower of Epictetus.

The author of the well-known philosophical essay "To oneself". At the center of his anti-materialistic doctrine is the partial possession of a person's body, spirit and soul, the wearer, which is a pious, courageous and reasoned person - the mistress, educator of a sense of duty and the abode of a testing conscience.

Through the spirit, all people take part in the divine and thereby create an ideological community that overcomes all limitations.

Key thoughts:

Ø Do not rush to agree with the talkers.

Ø Look within yourself.

Ø People exist for each other.

Ø Everything human is smoke, nothing.

Ø Do not be content with a superficial glance.

Ø “Soon you will forget about everything, and everyone, in turn, will forget about you”.

PHILOSOPHY OF ANCIENT ROME - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "PHILOSOPHY OF ANCIENT ROME" 2017, 2018.

Philosophy during the Roman Empire. Philosophers of ancient Rome and their role in the history of world culture Philosophy of ancient Rome main ideas and representatives

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