Posnov m e history of the church. History of the Christian Church

Church history before the separation - BibleQuote module

Church history before the division

The module includes the best books on the history of the Christian church before the separation:

Bolotov V.V. Lectures on the history of the Ancient Church

Posnov M.E. History of the Christian Church

Kazakov M.M. Christianization of the Roman Empire in the IV century

Kazakov M.M. Bishop and Empire: Ambrose of Mediolan and the Roman Empire in the 4th century

Chitty D. City Desert

Sokolov P. Agapy or the evening of love

Harnack A. Missionary preaching and the spread of Christianity

Julicher A. The religion of Jesus and the beginnings of Christianity before the Nicene Council

Dobschutz E. The most ancient Christian communities

Kartashev A. V. Ecumenical Councils

Anton V. Kartashev (June 23 (11), 1875, Kyshtym, Perm province - September 10, 1960, Menton) - the last chief prosecutor of the Holy Synod; Minister of Confessions of the Provisional Government, liberal theologian, historian of the Russian Church, church and public figure. As the last chief prosecutor, he prepared the self-liquidation of the institution of the chief prosecutor and the transfer of the fullness of church power to the Local Council of the Orthodox Russian Church in 1917-1918.

"Ecumenical Councils" is a fundamental historical work that came out from the pen of this remarkable and subtle thinker. The history of the famous ecumenical councils is shown in the context of the socio-political and cultural life of a unique era of transition from late antiquity to the early Middle Ages, when the economic, social, political and spiritual foundations of European civilization were laid.

This publication is of undoubted interest for all who study the history of religion and the church. introduces the most important pages of the history of the Christian Church - the period of the formation of its canonical norms and the formation of Christianity as a world religion.

Lectures by Professor V.V. Bolotov (1853-1900) were published only after his death.
The work was first published in 4 volumes, the last of which was published in 1918. In the lectures, the most important periods of the formation of Christianity are considered: its strengthening in the Roman Empire, the development of Gnostic systems, and its spread throughout Europe.

The work describes in detail the first three centuries of the history of Christianity.

Volume II An Introduction to Church History
I. Preliminary concepts
II. Ancillary Sciences for church history
III. Sources of Church History
IV. The division of church history into periods.
Volume III History of the Church in the Period Before Constantine the Great
Section one. Christianity and the pagan world: the struggle of Christianity with paganism in life and thought
I. Post-apostolic Church and Roman Empire
II. Apologies of Christianity and pagan controversy
III. The struggle of Christianity with pagan thought in the form of gnosis
IV. The spread of Christianity
Section two. The inner life of the church: clarification of the dogmatic teaching and principles of church discipline and ritual.
I. Disclosure of the doctrine of the God-man
II. Origen's Christian Gnosis System Experience
III. Montanism
IV. Discipline controversy and schisms in the ancient Church
V. Disputes about the time of the celebration of Easter
Vi. Church structure in the first three centuries of Christianity
Volume IV History of the Church in the Period of the Ecumenical Councils
The general nature of this period
Section one. Church and state
I. Conversion to Christianity of Constantine the Great
II. The value of the national characteristics of the Greeks and Romans and the traditions of the Roman state and the Christian church in establishing relations between church and state
III. The history of relations between church and state since the time of Constantine the Great.
IV. The struggle of Christianity against paganism in life and thought
V. Rights and privileges of the church in the Christian state
Section two. Church system.
I. Clear and hierarchy.
II. Forms of Church Union

"Lectures on the History of the Ancient Church" is the first published course of lectures by A. I. Brilliantov, read by him for the students of the St. Petersburg Theological Academy over the course of many years. The main focus of the lectures is on the history of triadological and Christological controversies in the early Church during the first six Ecumenical Councils, the formation of Christian dogma and the refutation of numerous heresies of that time.

Despite the complexity of the issues discussed in this book, "Lectures ..." are read easily and with unflagging interest, which largely depends on the style of AI Brilliantov - strictly consistent, logically verified, transparent in evidence and not devoid of high literary merits.

Introduction to General Church History
History of Church History
The general character of the era of the Ecumenical Councils
History of the Arian controversy
Arianism
History of Arianism before the Cathedral of Nicaea
Nicene Ecumenical Council
Struggle against Arianism after the Council of Nicaea (325-381)
The triumph of the Arians based on their alliance with the Eastern bishops (325-361)
Representatives of Origenism
History of the Arian controversies after the Council of Nicaea. Second period (361-381 years
History of the establishment of Orthodoxy in the East
Second Ecumenical Council
History of Christological controversies in the ancient Church
Apollinarianism
The history of disputes about the unification of two natures in a single person of the God-man
Christological views of representatives of various directions in the era of the Nestorian and Eutychian disputes
I. School of Antioch and Nestorianism
II. Alexandrian direction in Christology
Allies of St. Cyril of Alexandria
Origin of Monophysitism
III. Western Christology
Nestorian controversy
Dispute over Nestorius (428–435). Dispute start
Ephesus Cathedral 431 g
Eutychian controversy
Chalcedonian Ecumenical Council
History of the Monophysite controversy after the Council of Chalcedon
Monophysitism and its division into sects
Attitude towards the Council of Chalcedon and the Monophysitism of state power before Justinian
The reign of Justinian and the Fifth Ecumenical Council
Fifth Ecumenical Council
The Monothelite Controversy and the Sixth Ecumenical Council

Posnov M.E. History of the Christian Church (before the division of the Churches - 1054). Brussels: Life with God, 1964 and phototype. reissued. 1988 and Kiev, 1991 (detailed Russian and foreign bibliography). First, abridged edition: Sofia, 1937.

The book offered here is a generalizing work, which he himself intended to revise and publish again. The death that befell him in Sofia in 1931 prevented him from completing the final finishing of this work, which appeared in an abridged edition in Sofia in 1937.

Deeply devoted to his Church and her traditions, prof. Posnov, at the same time, was distinguished by a great directness of mind, constantly looking for the truth. This work - published this time in full, through the efforts of the author's daughter, I.M. Posnova, - reveals the essence of his views on the past and on the relationship between Eastern and Western Christianity during the first eleven centuries.

According to prof. Again, is it not the historian's task to establish facts in their primary truth and make it possible to understand their historical development? In the application of this method to the facts of church history, he saw a living source of genuine irenism, the one through which modern man himself reconciles with the past, which is revealed to him in the light of truth.

Smolensk: "Universum", 2002. - 464 p.

This monograph is devoted to the problem of the Christianization of the Roman Empire, which is interesting and insufficiently developed in Russian literature. Based on a wide range of sources and a deep study of extensive literature, the author analyzes the reasons for the conversion of the Roman Empire to Christianity at the beginning of the 4th century. and examines the activities of Emperor Constantine and his followers in favor of Christianity.

The book shows that Christianization was not an even and straightforward process and that in the 4th century. significant deviations in religious policy were allowed. The processes started by Constantine received a logical conclusion under the emperor Theodosius, whose religious policy is given special attention in the book. In the context of Christianization, the problem of internal church struggle is considered and portraits of the leaders of the church of that era are drawn.

A separate chapter is devoted to the issue of the territorial spread of Christianity and the penetration of this religion into various social strata of Roman society. The book is intended for students, graduate students and anyone interested in the history of late antiquity and ancient Christianity.

Introduction Chapter I Sources and
Chapter II Preconditions for Christianization
Chapter III "Constantine Revolution"
Chapter IV The course of Christianization from
Chapter V "Revolution" Theodosius
Chapter VI Christianization and Internal Church Struggle
Chapter VII The spread of Christianity by the end of the 4th century.
1. Territorial spread of Christianity 2. Christianization of various strata of Roman society

Smolensk, 1995

The book of M. M. Kazakov, Candidate of Historical Sciences, covers one of the most interesting and dramatic eras in the history of world civilization - the Christianization of the Roman Empire in the 4th century. The author focuses on the personality of the father of the church, an outstanding politician, bishop and writer Ambrose of Mediolansky, one of the key figures in almost all the turbulent political events that took place in the West in the last quarter of the 4th century.

The book includes many extracts from the works of Ambrose and other late antique authors, a significant part of which is being published in the Russian language for the first time.

The book is intended for historians, students, graduate students, and is also intended for a wide range of readers interested in antiquity and the history of religions.

Chapter 1. The time in which he was "lost"
Chapter 2. "Ambrose is a Bishop!"
Chapter 3. "I began to teach you what I myself have not yet learned"
Chapter 4. "Arian Poison"
Chapter 5. At the origins of the great church schism or disagreement "between the faithful themselves"
Chapter 7. "To the Most Excellent Augustus Gratian and the Most Christian Princeps"
Chapter 8. "The altar of Christ does not accept your gifts, because you sacrificed to the altar of idols"
Chapter 9. "I grieve for you, my beloved son Gratian, you gave us many proofs of your piety."
Chapter 10. "... because of my embassy, he was unable to invade Italy ..."
Chapter 11. "You ask the emperor for peace for your gods, but we ask Christ for peace for the emperors themselves."
Chapter 12. "And I again went to Gaul as your ambassador and I was pleased with this duty."
Chapter 13. "... I did not communicate with the bishops who asked to put some people to death, even if they deviated from the faith."
Chapter 14. "Palaces belong to the emperor, churches belong to the priest"
Chapter 15. "You brought me to him without my knowledge, so that he would bring me to you with my knowledge."
Chapter 16. "In the most military affairs, I think, you need to pay attention to whether these wars are just or not."
Chapter 17. "... he took off the royal insignia and publicly mourned his sin in church ..."
Chapter 18. "... heaven will come to the aid of your piety, which will save the Roman Empire from the barbaric savagery of robbers and from the reign of an unworthy usurper"
Chapter 19. "... with the death of such a person, Italy will be threatened with destruction"

Epilogue Kuzishchin V.I. Ambrose of Mediolansky - Man, Politician, Bishop

The proposed essay of the famous, gifted French writer on Roman history Amedeus Thierry, representing in itself an independent and completely complete whole, at the same time, constitutes the last final link in a whole series of works on Roman history written by him.

High literary dignity, unusually clear reproduction of the movements of social life of bygone times, workshops, prominently protruding images of the main characters of the era, the ability to grasp the characteristic and interesting features of the time and lead the thread of the story unremittingly maintaining a keen interest in it, finally, light, elegant and expressive speech - all these generally recognized virtues appear in full force and in this last work of him, published in 1878, after the death of the author, by his sons.

The Desert City book was written by Father Dervas James Chitty, Doctor of Divinity, an Anglican priest.

This remarkable work, which was published in 1966, is a slightly revised lecture course given by the author in 1959-60. at Birkbeck College, and, in the words of the author, is nothing more than an introductory essay on the history of the first three centuries of Egyptian and Palestinian monasticism (referring the reader to more serious studies and original works indicated in the notes), which could become for future researchers of his sort of a starting point or landmark.

This work, which has long become a classic, on the history of ancient Christian monasticism, in which the richness of the material and the severity of its presentation are combined with an unusual liveliness of presentation, has not lost its significance to this day.

An interesting study by an Orthodox historian about the origin of agap (evening of love), their course, cancellation and remaining echoes in Orthodox worship.

The ancient experience of agap was carefully collected in the book of Peter Sokolov. Sokolov shows that the suppers of love (agapa), distinguished by a more or less liturgical character, were one of the important manifestations of the social organization of the ancient Christian Church. The entire history of agapas in their emergence, development and gradual decline can be divided into three periods of unequal time: 1) agaphs of the primitive Church with a predominantly religious and mystical character and, of course, in connection with the Eucharist, 2) agapas with a predominantly charitable character - both out of touch and sometimes in connection with the Eucharist; 3) agapa after canonical abolition - the period of their agony with an attempt to be reborn and gradual dying. This direct course of the agap history has its own barely noticeable sleeve, containing the history of memorial meals.

The highest expression of the two features of the life of the New Testament Church - eschatology and brotherhood - were the agapas, which include, as their culminating point, the Eucharist. "And they continually dwelt in the teaching of the Apostles, in the fellowship and the breaking of bread, and in prayer" (Acts 2:42). Because of this connection with prayer and communion, these meals had a specifically liturgical character, and the voluntary offerings - since they constituted the discovery of koinonia (Greek, communion) - the offerings of the required supplies were also of a liturgical character.

Agapas were the natural expression of koinonia. The Agaphs of the first Church were the highest joyful expression of the close relationship of the members of the Church, the expression of the closest communion of love - that koinonia, which was the feeling of a living touch to the kingdom of God, - the consciousness of belonging to it with full and universal equality through Christ, so soon awaited again.

These were meals not of individuals, not of individual families, but of the entire Christian community, as one most closely connected family. Here Christians were united even more and, finally, their unification by the sacrament of the Eucharist was closed by union with Christ and in Christ. The Eucharist elevated agapa to a degree greater than just a simple meal for nourishment and deepened its meaning. Such a moral disposition and eschatological character of the agap imparted to them a special solemnity, gave them a religious and mystical coloring: the agap wore the bright appearance of the coming Christ. Agapa, uniting with the Eucharist, represented an exact reproduction of the Last Supper.

Supper of love, or agapa, is, according to widespread opinion, special meals of Christians of the first centuries, separated from the Eucharist (or separated from it over time) and held according to a special order. In the literature, at times, any mention of a non-eucharistic evening meal of early Christians (for example, the description of the “communion supper” in the “Apostolic Tradition” of the 3rd century) is identified with agapa. However, as the analysis of the sources shows, the whole variety of types of communal meals among the first Christians cannot be reduced to the opposition of agapa and the Eucharist; moreover, the very term "agapa" in plural. authors is simply synonymous with the Eucharist or is used in an indefinite sense.

The only early author who unequivocally describes the non-eucharistic evening meal of Christians, while calling it agapa, is Tertullian (Apol. 39). Therefore, it can only be argued that the center of the church life of early Christians (as well as in all subsequent epochs) was always only the Eucharist, while in certain communities there were also various forms of communal meals, which were not necessarily called “Evenings love ”and did not have a single tradition of their implementation (see: A. McGowan Naming the Feast: The Agape and the Diversity of Early Christian Meals // StPatr. 1997. Vol. 30. P. 314–318).

The book carefully examines and thoroughly investigates almost all aspects of early Christian life, both from its external organization and everyday life, and from the internal conditions for the emergence and spread of the revealed religion in pagan society.

External and internal conditions of missionary preaching of Christianity in the first three centuries. Judaism and its significance for the propaganda of Christianity.

II External conditions for the general spread of Christianity
III Internal conditions for the universal spread of Christianity
The religious foundations of the missionary preaching of Christianity in the first three centuries
The Gospel of the Healer and Healing
The Battle Against Demons in the Ancient Church and Its Significance to Mission
Christianity as a gospel of love and goodness
Christianity as a religion of spirit and strength, moral rigor and holiness, authority and reason
Christianity as the gospel of the "new people" and the "third kind" (historical and political consciousness of Christianity)
Christianity as a Religion of Books and Fulfilled History
Missionaries active in the first three centuries of Christianity (Apostles, evangelists, prophets, teachers; ordinary missionaries)
Methods of missionary preaching of Christianity in the first three centuries
I. The names of believers in Christ in the first three centuries of Christianity
II Friends
III. Christians proper names
The early Christian community and its significance for mission
Obstacles encountered in the spread of Christianity in the first three centuries of its history
Judgments of pagan philosophy about Christianity
The spread of Christianity among various classes of society in the first three centuries of its history
The spread of Christianity in court circles in the first centuries
The spread of Christianity among the military class
The spread of Christianity among women

The emergence of the legal development of the church
II. The attitude of the church in the first century (30-130) to the state and culture
III.The relationship of the church in the second century (about 130-230) to the state and culture
IV.The relation of the church in the third century (c. 230-311) to the state and culture
V. Development of the state towards rapprochement with the church
Vi. Final Review: From Constantine to Gratian and Theodosius (306-395)

Julicher A. The religion of Jesus and the beginnings of Christianity before the Nicene Council

Dobshuts E. The most ancient Christian communities. Cultural and historical paintings

CHAPTER I. Paul's Congregations
Corinthian community
Macedonian communities: Thessalonian and Philippian
Asia Minor communities: Galatian and Phrygian
Christians of Rome
CHAPTER II. Jewish Christians
Original community
Further development
Judaistic propaganda
Judeo-Christian community of later times
CHAPTER III. Later pagan-Christian communities
Communities Still Under Paul's Influence
John's circle of influence
The beginnings of gnosis
Communities of the Transitional Catalytic Era
Roman community of the time of Hermas

02/13/11 - Module with these books in ANSI encoding for BibleQuote 5 and 6, Android.

Thanks for the materials included in the module:
Klangtao - modules Kartashev, Posnov, Sokolov
Paul - text of Chitty's book
DikBSD - texts of books by Brilliantov, Harnak

Mikhail Emmanuilovich Posnov

History of the Christian Church

Part I.

Foreword. Preliminary information.

Sources of Church History. Editions of sources. Requirements from the historian for objectivity and aconfessionalism. The relationship of church history to other sciences - secular and theological. The boundaries of the history of the Christian Church and its division into periods. Church historiography Period I. Period II.

Introductory chapter

1. Preparation of the human race for the coming of Jesus Christ. 2. The state of the pagan and Jewish world by the time of the coming of Jesus Christ. Religious beliefs of the Jewish people in the age of the Nativity of Christ.

The first period (30–313).

The foundation, spread and internal development of the Church in the struggle against the Jewish and Greco-Roman world.

Chapter I. Mission of the Church in the first three centuries.

Founder of the Christian Church, Jesus Christ. Biblical sources. About the face of Jesus Christ according to the canonical gospels. The Case of Jesus Christ. Birth of the Christian Church in Jerusalem. The organization of life in the first Christian community. The first persecution of the Jerusalem Church. The beginning of the Christian mission among the pagans. Apostle Paul. Apostolic Council of Jerusalem (49). Activity of ap. Paul after the Apostolic Council. Arrival in Rome. Apostle Peter. The founding of the Roman Church. The fate of the first Christian community and the destruction of Jerusalem. Activity of St. John the Theologian and other Apostles. Christian mission in the II-III centuries Countries, cities and places of the spread of Christianity by the beginning of the 4th century. Spreading Christianity among various sectors of society

Chapter II. The Christian Church and the Outside World. The relationship between church and state

Persecution of Christians by pagans.

Chapter III. The inner life of the Christian Church in the 1st-3rd centuries.

Organization of the Church. Apostles, prophets and teachers. Permanent hierarchical and non-hierarchical ministries in the Church. The so-called monarchical episcopate. Metropolitans in the first three centuries of Christianity. Roman Bishops in the First Three Centuries: The Relationship Between Individual Christian Churches in the First Three Centuries. The question of the fallen. Church schisms of Felicissimus in Carthage, Novatian in Rome.

Chapter IV. Church creed in the first three centuries.

Judeo-Christian delusions. Gnosticism. Montanism. Monarchianism. Manichaeism. The Church's Struggle Against Heresies of the 2nd and 3rd Centuries Positive disclosure of Christian teaching. 1. Teachings of the 12 Apostles. (Διδαχη Κυριου δια των δωδεκα αποστολων τοις εθνεσιν). St. Justin Martyr. Minucius Felix "Octavius". Controversy with the monarchians. The doctrine of the Logos-Christ. Tertullian's theological views. His system The development of speculative theology in the Church. Origen (182-215).

Sacred days and times of the 1st-3rd centuries Annual mobile holidays and fasting. Places of liturgical meetings. Christian painting.

Chapter VI. Religious and moral life of Christians.

Church discipline. The religious morale of believers. The beginning of monasticism.

Part 2. The period of ecumenical councils.

Chapter I. The spread of Christianity.

Great migration of peoples. Armenia and Iveria (Georgia). Arabia and Abyssinia. Christian mission among the Slavic peoples. Christianity among Czechs. Christianity in Poland. Christianity in Russia.

Chapter II.

The attitude of the Christian Church to the outside world. Church and State. Emperor Constantine the Great and the Edict of Milan. The relationship between Church and state in the East and in the West. The sons of Constantine the Great are Constantine II, Constance and Constance. Emperors Julian, Grapian, Theodosius the Great and the Younger. The relationship between ecclesiastical and state power in the West. The rise of the Pope over the emperors. The Calamities of the Church. The reaction of paganism. Emperor Julian the Apostate. Persecution of Christians in Persia. Pagan controversy and Christian apologetics from the 4th century. Islam.

Chapter III. Church organization.

Pope Alexandrian Patriarchate. Antioch Patriarchate. Jerusalem Patriarchate. Rise of the Bishop of Constantinople "New Rome". List Patriarchs of Constantinople until the 9th century. Bishops. Chorebishops. Episcopal administration. Special ecclesiastical offices. Lower clergy.

Church Legislation.

About Local and Ecumenical Councils. The canonical (legal) side in the activities of the Local and Ecumenical Councils. On the collections of canons. Apostolic canons. Apostolic didascale. The so-called Apostolic Statutes. The split of the Donatists. Meletian schism.

Chapter IV. Disclosure of Christian teachings during the period of the Ecumenical Councils (IV-VIII century).

The first Ecumenical Council was convened on the occasion of the heresy of Arius in Nicaea in 325 AD. Teachings of Athanasius of Alexandria. Aria's performances. The first Ecumenical Council in Nicea in the year 325. Struggle for the Nicene Creed. "New Niceneans", Cappadocians. Theodosius I (379-395). Council of Constantinople in 381 (2nd Ecumenical). Christological question. The beginning of the Christological controversy. Diodorus of Tarsus and Theodore of Mopsuestia. The teachings of Cyril of Alexandria. The rivalry between the Bishops of Alexandria and Constantinople. Nestorius as Archbishop of Constantinople. Third Ecumenical Council at Ephesus, in 431 AD "Cathedral" (Conciliabulum) of John of Antioch. Orders of Emperor Theodosius. Continuation of the council sessions. Refusal of Nestorius from the department and his subsequent fate. Attempts of Emperor Theodosius II to reconcile the conflicting parties. The fate of the Ephesian Council. Union of Antioch. Union of Antioch. The fate of Nestorianism. Nestorians. The origin of Monophysitism. The so-called "robber" Council of Ephesus 449 AD of Chalcedon Council 451 IV-th Ecumenical Council. The significance of the Council of Chalcedon. History of the Monophysites after the Council of Chalcedon. The teaching of the Monophysites and their division. Emperor Justinian I (527-565). Fifth Ecumenical Council 553 in Constantinople. Monothelite dispute. VI-th Ecumenical Council 680-681 Iconoclastic dispute. The question of veneration of icons after the 7th Ecumenical Council. Iconoclasm in the West. Pavlikians. Results. General development of dogma in the East up to St. John of Damascus (inclusive).

Chapter V. Christian worship.

Daily, weekly and weekly services. Yearly circle of holidays. Circle of Christmas holidays. Veneration of martyrs, saints, the Blessed Virgin Mary and angels. Veneration of relics. Travel to holy places. Icons. Church chants from the 4th-11th centuries. Western songwriters. Church Sacraments. Eucharistic Liturgy. Liturgical charter. Places of Christian worship. Christian art.

Chapter VI. Moral life.

The state of religious and moral life in general from the 4th to the 11th century. Monasticism. The history of monasticism. Monasticism in the West. The historical significance of monasticism and the regulation of its life by the Church.

Great Church Schism.

Separation of Churches. The last clash of Byzantium with Rome in the middle of the 11th century. The so-called separation of churches.

Foreword.

Professor Mikhail Emmanuilovich Posnov (1874-1931) graduated from the Kiev Theological Academy and subsequently maintained constant ties with Western universities. He was a professor in Kiev, and later in Sofia, where he lectured on dogmatics and, especially, on church history. The book offered here is a generalizing work, which he himself intended to revise and publish again. The death that befell him in Sofia in 1931 prevented him from completing the final finishing of this work, which appeared in an abridged edition in Sofia in 1937.

Over the past three and a half decades, many of the historical facts touched on in these pages have been re-examined and some of them are now presented in a new light. But the advances that the newest knowledge could achieve do not detract from the value of this book. It lies mainly in the scientific orientation of this work, in the truthfulness and impartiality of the author and in the method by which he was constantly inspired. According to prof. Again, is it not the historian's task to establish facts in their primary truth and make it possible to understand their historical development? In the application of this method to the facts of church history, he saw a living source of genuine irenism, the one through which modern man himself reconciles with the past, which is revealed to him in the light of truth.

Some features:

Father of Irina Mikhailovna Posnova.

Origin

Genus. in the Ryazan province.

Education

Graduated from the Kiev Theological Academy

Acts

From 1908 - assistant professor of Kiev University in the department. the history of the Church.

From 1910 he taught the course of the Holy. NZ scriptures at the Kiev Theological Academy (professor extraordinary?)

From 1913-1919 - professor of the Kiev Theological Academy in the department. history of the ancient Church.

1919-1931 - Professor of Dogmatics and Church History at the Sofia Theological Academy.

Professor of Church History at the Faculty of Theology, Sofia University.

Creations

The Idea of the Covenant of God with the Israelite People in the Old Testament: An Experience of Theological-Philosophy. reviews of the history of the Israeli people. - Kiev., 1898.

Master's dissertation

The interaction of two factors in the history of the Israeli people - the divine and the human. - Kiev, 1903.

Judaism (to the characterization of the inner life of the Jewish people in the post-war period). - Kiev, 1906.
Download djvu (file size: 7.48 MB, 273 pages)

The work examines the messianism of the inter-Testament period, the question of the Men of the Great Council, the emergence of apocalyptic literature and currents and sects within Judaism. P.'s main conclusion was that the centuries that passed between the prophet Malachi and John the Baptist were not an era of "petrification", but were distinguished by an intense creative religious life, and this fact cannot diminish certain elements of spiritual decline.

From the "Bibliological Dictionary"
priest Alexander Men

On the question of the sources of Christ. doctrine and its tasks. - SPb., 1906.

About the fate of biblical Israel. - Kiev, 1907.

First christ. community and communism. - SPb., 1909. (?)

New types of construction of the ancient history of the Church. - Kiev, 1909.

On the personality of the founder Christ. churches. - SPb., 1910.

a critical analysis of the Christological views of Paulus, Strauss, Renan and other representatives of rationalism.

The Gospel of Jesus Christ and the Gospel of the Apostles about Christ. - Kiev, 1911.

Gnosticism of the 2nd century and the victory of christ. churches above it.- Kiev, 1917.826 p.
(2nd edition (reprint) - Brussels: Living with God, 1991).

Samaria magicians - christ. Heresearchs: In 2 vols. - SPb .; Kiev, 1917.
Download:
Posnov M.E. Samaria magicians are Christian heresyarchs. 1915.djvu (file size: 1.5 MB, 44 pages)
Posnov M.E. Samaria magicians are Christian heresyarchs. 1917.djvu (file size: 1.38 MB, 50 pages)

The answer to the criticism of prof. Rybinsky
(Rybinsky Vl., Samaritanism and Gnosticism, "The Wanderer", 1914, # 3; 1916, # 1.)

Metropolitan Anthony as an Orthodox theologian-dogmatist. - Warsaw, 1929.
(Metropolitan Anthony, as an Orthodox theological diplomat. - Warsaw, 1929. 32 p.)

History of christ. churches. (before the division of the churches - 1054)- Brussels: Life with God, 1964.614 p.
(2nd edition (reprnt) - Brussels: Life with God, 1988).

Several articles on bibl. stories for "Pravosl. divine encyclopedias "
(Jeremiah - vol. 6; Scribes - vol. 12, etc.).

Story
Christian Church
Mikhail Emmanuilovich Posnov (1874-1931).

Part I.
Foreword. Preliminary information.
Sources of Church History. Editions of sources Requirements from the historian
objectivity and aconfessionalism. The relationship of church history to other sciences -
secular and theological. The boundaries of the history of the Christian Church and its division into
periods. Church historiography Period I. Period II.
Introductory chapter
1. Preparation of the human race for the coming of Jesus Christ. 2. Condition
pagan and Jewish world at the time of the coming of Jesus Christ. Religious
beliefs of the Jewish people in the age of the Nativity of Christ.
The first period (30-313).
The foundation, spread and internal development of the Church in the struggle against the Jewish and
Greco-Roman world.
Chapter I. Mission of the Church in the first three centuries.
Founder of the Christian Church, Jesus Christ. Biblical sources. About face
Jesus Christ according to the canonical gospels. The Case of Jesus Christ. Birth
Christian Church in Jerusalem. The organization of life in the first Christian community.
The first persecution of the Jerusalem Church. The beginning of the Christian mission among
pagans. Apostle Paul. Apostolic Council of Jerusalem (49). Activity
ap. Paul after the Apostolic Council. Arrival in Rome. Apostle Peter.
The founding of the Roman Church. The fate of the first Christian community and destruction
Jerusalem. Activity of St. John the Theologian and other Apostles. Christian
mission in the II-III century. Countries, cities and places of spread of Christianity to the beginning
4th century Spread of Christianity among various sectors of society
Chapter II. The Christian Church and the Outside World. The relationship between the church and
the state
Persecution of Christians by pagans.
Chapter III. The inner life of the Christian Church in the 1st-3rd centuries.
Organization of the Church. Apostles, prophets and teachers. Permanent hierarchical and
non-hierarchical ministries in the Church. The so-called monarchical episcopate.
Metropolitans in the first three centuries of Christianity. Roman bishops in the first three centuries:
The relationship between the individual Christian Churches in the first three centuries.
The question of the fallen. Church schisms of Felicissimus in Carthage, Novatian in Rome.
Chapter 4. Church creed in the first three centuries.
Judeo-Christian delusions. Gnosticism. Montanism. Monarchianism.
Manichaeism. The Church's Struggle Against Heresies of the 2nd and 3rd Centuries Positive disclosure
Christian teaching. 1. Teachings of the 12 Apostles. (?????? ?????? ??? ??? ??????
????????? ???? ???????). St. Justin Martyr. Minucius Felix "Octavius." Controversy
with the monarchians. The doctrine of the Logos-Christ. Tertullian's theological views. His
system Development of speculative theology in the Church. Origen (182-215).
Chapter V. Christian worship. I II
Sacred days and times of the 1st-3rd centuries Annual mobile holidays and fasting. Places
liturgical meetings. Christian painting.
Chapter VI. Religious and moral life of Christians.
Church discipline. The religious morale of believers. Start
monasticism.
Part 2. The period of ecumenical councils.
Chapter I. The spread of Christianity.
Great migration of peoples. Armenia and Iveria (Georgia). Arabia and Abyssinia.
Christian mission among the Slavic peoples. Christianity among Czechs.
Christianity in Poland. Christianity in Russia.
Chapter II.
The attitude of the Christian Church to the outside world. Church and State. The emperor
Constantine the Great and the Edict of Milan. The relationship between Church and state in
East and West. Sons of Constantine the Great - Constantine II, Constance and
Constance. Emperors Julian, Grapian, Theodosius the Great and the Younger. Attitude
between ecclesiastical and state power in the West. The rise of the pope over
emperors. The Calamities of the Church. The reaction of paganism. Emperor Julian the Apostate.
Persecution of Christians in Persia. Pagan controversy and Christian apologetics with
4th century. Islam.
Chapter III. Church organization.
Pope Alexandrian Patriarchate. Antioch Patriarchate. Jerusalem
patriarchy. Rise of the Bishop of Constantinople "New Rome." Here is a list
Patriarchs of Constantinople before the 9th century: Bishops. Chorebishops. Episcopal
control. Special ecclesiastical offices. Lower clergy.
Church Legislation.
About Local and Ecumenical Councils. Canonical (legal) side in
activities of Local and Ecumenical Councils. On the collections of canons. Apostolic
canons. Apostolic didascale. The so-called Apostolic Statutes.
The split of the Donatists. Meletian schism.
Chapter IV. Disclosure of Christian teachings during the period of the Ecumenical
cathedrals (IV-VIII century).
The first Ecumenical Council was convened on the occasion of the heresy of Arius at Nicaea in 325.
Athanasius of Alexandria. Aria's performances. First Ecumenical Council at Nicea in
325th year. Struggle for the Nicene Creed. "New Niceneans," Cappadocians.
Theodosius I (379-395). Council of Constantinople 381 (II
Ecumenical). Christological question. The beginning of the Christological controversy. Diodorus
Tarsi and Theodore of Mopsuestia. The teachings of Cyril of Alexandria.
The rivalry between the Bishops of Alexandria and Constantinople. Nestorius like
Archbishop of Constantinople. Third Ecumenical Council at Ephesus, in 431.
"Cathedral" (Conciliabulum) of John of Antioch. Emperor's orders
Feodosia. Continuation of the council sessions. Refusal of Nestorius from the department and
subsequent fate of him. Attempts of Emperor Theodosius II to reconcile those who argued
party. The fate of the Ephesian Council. Union of Antioch. Union of Antioch. Fate
Nestorianism. Nestorians. The origin of Monophysitism. So-called
"robber" Council of Ephesus 449, Council of Chalcedon 451, IV-th Ecumenical
The cathedral. The significance of the Council of Chalcedon. History of the Monophysites after Chalcedonian
Cathedral. The teaching of the Monophysites and their division. Emperor Justinian I (527-565).
Fifth Ecumenical Council 553 in Constantinople. Monothelite dispute. VI-th
Ecumenical Council 680-681. Iconoclastic dispute. The question of veneration of icons after
VII-th Ecumenical Council. Iconoclasm in the West. Pavlikians. Results. General
the development of dogmatism in the East up to St. John of Damascus (inclusive).
Chapter V. Christian worship.
Daily, weekly and weekly services. Yearly circle of holidays. A circle
Christmas holidays. Veneration of martyrs, saints, the Blessed Virgin Mary and
angels. Veneration of relics. Travel to holy places. Icons. Ecclesiastical
chants from the 4th-11th centuries. Western songwriters. Church Sacraments.
Eucharistic Liturgy. Liturgical charter. Places of Christian worship.
Christian art.
Chapter VI. Moral life.
The state of religious and moral life in general from the 4th to the 11th century. Monasticism.
The history of monasticism. Monasticism in the West. The historical significance of monasticism and
regulation of his life by the Church.
Great Church Schism.
"Partition of the Churches." The last clash of Byzantium with Rome in half of the 11th
century. The so-called separation of churches.

Part I

Foreword.
Professor Mikhail Emmanuilovich Posnov (1874-1931) graduated from the Kiev Spiritual
Academy and subsequently maintained constant ties with Western universities. He
was a professor in Kiev, later - in Sofia, where he lectured on dogmatics and, in
features of church history. The book offered here is
generalizing work, which he himself intended to revise and publish again.
The death that befell him in Sofia in 1931 prevented him from carrying out the last
finishing of this work, which appeared in an abridged edition in Sofia in 1937.
Deeply devoted to his Church and her traditions, prof. Posnov at the same time
distinguished by a great directness of mind, constantly looking for the truth. Real work -
published this time in full, through the efforts of the author's daughter, I.M. Posnova, -
reveals the essence of his views on the past and on the relationship between the Eastern and
Western Christianity during the first eleven centuries.
Over the past three and a half decades, many historical facts have been touched upon
on these pages have been re-examined and some of them are now presented
in new lighting. But the advances that the newest knowledge could achieve were not
detract from the value of this book. It consists mainly of scientific
the direction of this work, in the veracity and impartiality of the author and in that
a method by which he was constantly inspired. According to prof. Again, isn't it
the historian's task is to establish facts in their primary truth and give
the ability to understand their historical development? In applying this method to facts
church history, he saw a living source of genuine irenism, that, through
whom modern man himself reconciles with the past, which opens up to him in
light of truth.
This book is published by the Russian religious publishing house "Life with God" in Brussels,
already published a number of works that could promote mutual understanding between Catholics
and Orthodox, under the auspices of the Committee for Cultural Cooperation under
Secretariat for Unity. Its publication is conceived as a matter of fraternal friendship.
The history of the Church of the first eleven centuries gives the Orthodox a valuable work,
created by one of their finest historians; other Christians, she will allow
to get acquainted with such a view of history, of the past of the Church in an era when she
was still undivided, a gaze that seeks to be objective and
unbiased.
We consider it a pleasant duty to express gratitude to everyone who in any way
collaborated in preparing this book for publication. In particular, we mean here
some professors at Auven University and monks of Benedictine
monastery in Shevton.
The bibliography has been reviewed and supplemented with the latest sources.
Canon Edouard Baudouin.

Preliminary information
Science concept. The history of the Christian Church, as a discipline, is a study
the past in the life of the Church and its presentation in a systematic manner, i.e. v
chronological sequence and pragmatic connection.
The subject and nature of science is more precisely defined and more clearly stands out from the name,
given to her by a historian of the 4th century, Bishop. Eusebius of Caesarea ?????????????
???????, i.e. from the words ??????? and????????. The word ???????, like ?????, occurs
from ????, which is as opposed to ???????? means actual knowledge,
obtained by observation. "??????? is the questioning, inquiring people about
something that happened when a personal witness of this for some reason did not succeed
be. In this case, at first glance, the meaning of the Greek word ??????? as if
is correctly conveyed by the German Geschichte, but in fact there is
significant difference: Geschichte, from geschehen, can mean everything
what happened; however, the first Greek historian, the father of history, Herodotus, in his
the narrative, for example, about the Scythians, only reports, in his opinion, remarkable,
characteristic, deserving the attention of contemporaries and posterity. Such a meaning
established itself in the universal human consciousness: "historical" is something important,
serious, great - so as to remember "the days of old" and "learn from them."
Therefore, by history we mean now the narration of the wonderful
events of the past tense, about which the story is interesting to get from the mouth
eyewitness, at least from a well-informed person, in a word, from a source
quite reliable. ???????? derived from?????, ?????? - call, call,
invite. According to the law of the Athenian legislator Solon, ???????? is an emergency
gathering of all the people to resolve the most important state affairs,
exceeding the authority of permanent management or ?????. The idea is very clear and
rich in content. But it is preserved only among those peoples who
kept that word. For example, the Romans accurately conveyed this word by rewriting it
Latin letters - Eslesia, and from them they borrowed the nations that became
Christian thanks to the Roman Church, for example, the French - eglise, Italians -
chiesa, Spanish - iglesia. The Slavic word "church" is already devoid of this idea.
The ancient Slavic word "tsrky," church, German Kirche comes from
Greek ?? ????????, which means the assembly of believers who receive the living,
active participation in the life and events of the Church. In the gospels, the word "????????"
occurs only three times, and this is precisely in the Gospel of Matthew (16:18):
My church "and in ch. (18:17):" Tell the church: and if the church does not listen ... "
the Epistles of the Apostles, especially the Apostle Paul - the word ???????? and related
him - ??????, ?????? - are used very often. Of course Jesus Christ
preached to his contemporaries in Aramaic and probably took advantage of
the name of the church is Aramaic Edma. However, the apostles and followers of Christ,
who knew, of course, along with Greek and Aramaic or Syro-Chaldean, -
undoubted witnesses in favor of the fact that what they used as a translation
the Greek word for "????????" most closely matches the Aramaic word in
mouth of Jesus Christ.
The Church (? ???????? ??? ??????? - Matthew 16:18; 1 Cor. 10:32; Gal. 1:13) is
founded and led by Jesus Christ, the Son of God, a society of believers in
Him, sanctified by the Holy Spirit in the sacraments in the hope of cleansing from sins and
salvation in the hereafter. The Church is not only an earthly institution; she is chasing
unearthly goals: the realization of the Kingdom of God among people, preparing them for
Kingdom of Heaven (??? ????????? ????, ??? ???????, ??? ???????). Attitude
between the Church, the Kingdom of God and the Kingdom of Heaven defies clarification. V
The church has two elements or factors - divine and human. Founding of the Church,
its guidance and all sanctifying actions are from God. The object of the same life-saving
influences, environment, material are represented by people. However, the person is not in the Church.
the element is mechanical, people are not a passive environment. Against the mechanical gaze
on people already the very name of the Church ????????, as shown above. V
of the Christian Church, man participates by his free will in his own
salvation and the dispensation of the Kingdom of God on earth. Without free active participation
man, God cannot save him. - Actually the study of church history and
subject to the human element, its development, its changes, under the influence or
the influence of the divine factor. The divine factor itself, like
eternal, unchangeable, is not subject to history, goes beyond its boundaries.
The history of the Christian Church is, on the one hand, a historical science; by this
the subject in general is determined and the research method is indicated: as a science
historical, church history sets out changes in the past life of the Church,
using the historical or inductive method.
On the other hand, church history is a theological science, it is part of the family
theological sciences and here it takes its definite place.
Objective and method. All that is expressed is subject to the depiction of church history.
and the life of the community of the Lord is expressed, called the Church, organizing the eternal
saving people. The task of history is not easy, so to speak, to describe reality.
and to know it without pursuing any side goals, subject to full
objectivity, but to make clear the whole historical development, all changes and,
as far as possible, explain the course of history. Church history is one of
departments, parts or sides of general human development; because of this she
cannot be isolated from general history. On the other hand, there is also a great
the difference between them. If secular, civil history means earthly,
political, cultural and educational development of peoples (humanity), then
church history depicts people's striving for the eternal, heavenly goal of salvation
their souls.
In particular, the task of church history is to ensure that in the subject
areas: a) collect facts, extract data from all relevant areas,
characterizing the life of the Church, in a word, to attach to the case all available
historical material, b) study it critically, establishing the true,
authentic, rejecting the counterfeit, falsified and indicating the doubtful and c)
finally, present all the material obtained and critically tested in compliance with
proper rules. Obviously, the presentation of historical facts cannot be
simple chronicle narration of events, but should be compiled according to
historical method. The facts must be arranged in a strictly chronological order.
Only this order will make it possible to understand the facts in their natural,
natural, genetic development and will help establish a pragmatic connection
between them, as between reasons and effects, causes and actions.
Of course, the historical method is not fully applicable in church
history, since it includes a divine element that is not subject to accounting with
aspects of human exploration. With a purely historical method,
for example, we cannot find out the origin of Christianity, since it
there is a gift from heaven, - no major epochs in its development, why, for example, it was not possible
paganism - neither its external political state power, nor internal -
philosophical, intelligent - to destroy Christianity during the II and III centuries. and
prevent his victory in the IV century.

Sources of Church History.
Everything that helps in one way or another serves as a source for church history.
the establishment of actual historical facts from the past life of the Church. Between
sources of the first place in history are the oldest monumental monuments
and written documents. Ancient historians of the Church can also be attributed to
sources - direct, since they describe directly from experience the observed
their life, and mediocre, since they depict the course of church events,
using someone else's written data or oral stories.
Monumental sources. These include a) works of Christian painting,
architecture and sculpture. They don't tell the life story of the Christian Church
in human language, but serve as an expression of the spirit and life of Christians, a reflection of their
beliefs and sentiments. These are especially the Roman catacombs with their
symbolic painting, Christian altars and tombs. They detail
described by prof. De Rossi, Inscriptiones christianae urbis Romae septimo
saeculoantiquiores. Bd. I. Romae 1857. Bd. lI. Тl. I. Rome 1887. Christian
Gaul inscriptions are described by Le Blant, Spanish and British - H? bner "om. - b) K
various inscriptions on seals also belong to monumental monuments,
coins and other items. Sources of this kind must be delivered very
high. It is not so easy to write on stones, marble monuments, walls. If who
made such inscriptions, then had serious motives for that. From the monuments of this
genus are known, for example, discovered in the XVI century. statues of Hippolytus of Rome and Sabinsky
deity Sema (Semo).
Written monuments: a) These include Roman-Byzantine legal
prescriptions concerning Christians - edicts, decrees, novellas collected in Codex
Theodosianus (ed. Th. Mmmsen et R.M. Meuer, Berol. 1905), Corpus juris civilis
Justiniani (ed. Mommen, Berol. 1892-1895), in later legislative
monuments of kings Basil, Leo and Constantine (at Leuenclavius. Jus
graeco-romanum. 2 Bd., Frankof 1596). Spiritual and secular concerning
Christian Church collected in ???????? Rhalli and Potti and published in Athens in
1852-1859, in six volumes in 8-vо, and then by Cardinal Pitra, Juris ecclesiasticae
graecorum historia et monumenta, b) various official Christian acts,
of a legal nature - decrees of local and ecumenical councils, messages
bishops, metropolitans, patriarchs to various churches, societies and individuals, c)
the most ancient liturgies and prescriptions of the cult, symbols and heterogeneous confessions,
or statements of faith, acts of martyrdom, - d) the creations of Sts. fathers and teachers
Church and Church Writers.

Source editions
Already in the last centuries of the Middle Ages, the need awakens to rise from
traditional, church and school theology to pure sources of Christian
knowledge in the Holy Scriptures and the Holy Fathers. Study and publication of ancient paternal
monuments begins from the time of humanism and significantly increases in the century
reformation. On publications and polemical writings by Protestants
followed by a response from the Catholic Church. At the beginning of the 17th century. (1618) founded
The Benedictine Congregation of Saint Maurus, through its publishing work, acquired
his immortal glory. Such are, for example, the "Asta santorum" by the Belgian John
Bolland (1665), Rumnar's Acta martyrum (1709); from the XVIII century. must be
mentioned: "Bibliotheca veterum patrium" by Andrei Hollandi and "Biblioteka
orientalis "Assemani. - In the 19th century.
Vatican Library Angelo May Pitra. - An enormous practical role was played by
still continues to play not distinguished by special advantages in scientific terms
edition of Abbot Minge (J.P. Mingae, 1875): Patrologiae cursus completus, - series
latina - 221 Vol. (Paris 1844-1864), series graeca, 162 Vol. (1857-1866). In view of
textual shortcomings Minh, Vienna Academy of Sciences from the 2nd half of the XIX century. (With
1866) began publishing the Latin Fathers "corpus scriptorum ecclesiasticorum
latinorum, "and the Prussian Academy of Sciences from 1891 set itself the task of publishing
Greek writers: "Die griechischen christlichen Schriftsteller der ersten
drei Juhrhunderte. "In France, continuing the Assemani cause, Grafin and F. Nau began
publish: "Patrologia orientalis." Among the Slavic peoples among Russian theologians
many translations and editions of patristic literature appeared. So husbands
apostolic, works of apologists and works of Saint Irenaeus of Lyons
translated by Archpriest Preobrazhensky. Western Fathers and Writers - Tertullian,
Cyprian, Augustine, Jerome, Arnobius were transferred to the Kiev Theological Academy;
Eastern fathers - in the St. Petersburg and Moscow Academies.
The edition of the acts of the ecumenical councils is available from Mansi (1798) sacrorum conciliorum
nova et amplissima collectio in volume 31 (ending with the Cathedral of Florence in 1439).
Muncie's work was continued at the end of the 19th century. and the beginning of the XX century. Abbot Martin and
Archbishop Louis Petit.
The publisher of the continued Muncie was a certain G. Welte (N. Welte). Full title
the new edition is: "Sacrorum conciliorum nova amplissima collectio" (Mansi,
Martin et L. Petit). Hubert Welte, Editeur (de 1879 a 1914: Paris), depius 1914 a
Arnhem (Hollande); it is assumed in T. LIII (but in practice, in view of the doubling
volumes - a, b, or and c in LVI); the last 5 volumes (49-53) contain acts
The Vatican Cathedral; of them the first two volumes (49-50) were printed. There is also Russian
the publication of the acts of the Ecumenical Councils and the translation of the Kazan Theological Academy in seven
volumes.
The publication of the canons of the Eastern and Western Church was carried out by N. Bruns,
Lauchert. In Russia, apart from the "Book of the Rules of the Holy Apostles,"
the capital edition of the Society of Lovers of Spiritual Enlightenment in Moscow:
"Rules of the Holy Apostles, Holy Councils - ecumenical and local and Holy
Fathers "with interpretations, v. 1-Sh. Moscow. Last edition 1884
Hagiographic monuments - acts of martyrs and biographies of Saints - began
published by the Flemish Jesuits, the Bollandists under the title "Asta sanctorum,
quot-quot toto in orbe coluntur, "i.e." Acts of the Saints, who are only venerated
in the universe. "Their work, interrupted by the French Revolution, was continued in
XIX century. Belgian Jesuits. Currently, the publication has been brought to "November"
months. - Abridged edition of some critically reviewed acts done
Ruinar, Knopf, Gebgart. - The Russians have the Chetya of the Menaion of Met. Macarius from the XVI
in., Chetya of the Menaion metr. Dmitry of Rostov, study of Sergius, archbishop
Vladimirsky "Months of the East," Professor Klyuchevsky "Lives of the Saints, as
historical source "and Professor Golubinsky" On the canonization of Saints in the Russian
Churches."

Requirements from the historian for objectivity and aconfessionalism.
When collecting sources, researching material and processing it, the historian
must be objective, free from false patriotism (chauvinism), and the church
historian from denominational trends. - The ancient orator Cicero (Ogioop. II,
9-15) says: "Ne quid falsi dicere audeat, ne quid veri non audeat"
"The historian should not say anything false or hide anything true."
Christian writer of the late III and early IV century. Hieromartyr, Bishop Lucian
said: "???? ?????? ?? ???????, ?? ??? ???????? ?????? ????." "Only one
the truth must be sacrificed by the one who intends to write history. "

Relation of Church History to Other Sciences
- secular and theological.

A. Church history has a connection with civil history, being inseparable
part of it. A church historian needs a lot of attention, diligence, art and
experience in order to distinguish church-historical material from secular and, with
clarification of acts and events of both religious and political significance,
introduce a civilian element as much as it is essential
necessary for the correct understanding and coverage of church data. Political
history is often a background, a canvas on which church events are woven; she
can have a beneficial effect on the development of church affairs, but can delay,
embarrass or directly stop their course. All this, of course, should be noted,
when presenting the life of the Church for certain periods. - Church history has
deep connection with ancient Greek philosophy, especially with Platonism,
stoicism and neo-Platonism. Church historian, without knowledge of Greek philosophy,
not only will not understand the origin of heresies, but also a positive
church and theological development. Apologists, heresyologists, Alexandrian teachers -
Clement and Origen, fathers and teachers of the Church of the 4th and 5th centuries. all were trained in Hellenic
sciences, first of all, they knew philosophy. And this clearly had a beneficial effect not
only on the general cultural level, but also on their study of theological truths.
This was well noticed by the Emperor Julian, who betrayed Christianity and forbade Christians
visiting pagan schools. - Church history is tightly connected with the history of religions,
of which some were serious "rivals of Christianity," as a religion
Mithras, the sun god. Without knowledge of the history of religions, it is not always clear
the spread of Christianity and obstacles to its propaganda. No history
religions do not understand Gnosticism and other heresies of Christianity, for example,
Manichaeism.
In addition to those listed, there are other secular sciences that are auxiliary to history.
Extracting material from historical sources is not as easy as it might seem
at first sight. Here you need knowledge and the ability to determine the origin
source, its authenticity, read it correctly and understand it correctly. - There is a whole
a number of sciences that help the historian make good use of the proposed
historical material. These are:
1. Diplomacy (??????? - a document folded in half) is a science that helps
determine the type of document by its appearance. In the east in the form of diplomas
there were Chryzovuls, royal letters with a gold seal; usually basileus
(kings) signed in purple ink ??????????, i.e. indict and month.
2. Sphragistics or sigillography - the science of seals - has emerged from diplomacy.
Wax seals stood out; sealing wax is a Spanish invention of the 16th century.
3. Epigraphy is a science dealing with inscriptions on solid material, as a kind of it -
numismatics.
4. Paleography deals with manuscripts on papyrus, parchment and paper.
5. Philology. Paleography helps to read the manuscript correctly, and philology gives
means to correctly understand what is written and read. In this regard, for
for the historian of the ancient Church, knowledge of ancient and classical languages is especially important -
Greek and Latin.
6. Geography and chronology - make it possible to determine the source by location and
time of its origin.
B. Theology (????????) - scientific research and clarification of data
Christianity - began in the II century, when the service of the new
religion was called upon by the means of Greek education. In the area of
theology specialization was expressed in the division into departments of theological sciences and
the requirement of methodological development of them in accordance with special tasks.
Theology is usually divided into 4 sections: 1. exegetical theology, 2.
historical, 3. systematic and 4. practical theology. They boil down to
three and even two - historical and systematic theology. Task
historical theology - depicting the history of the message of revelation to mankind
and its assimilation by man. This includes stories - biblical and church.
The history of the Christian Church seeks to depict as fully and
comprehensively the life of the Church in its consistent development. Special development
certain aspects of church life resulted in the emergence of a whole series of
theological sciences of a historical nature, - the history of dogmas, symbolism,
patrology, history of Christian literature, church archeology, history
worship and history of Christian art. General church history has
the importance of the linking center and basic science in the environment of all these particular disciplines.
- As a science mother for many historical disciplines, church history
associated with exegetical theology, which serves as a source for ecclesiastical
theology. Church history in turn helps exegetical
theology by following the history of the canon.

The boundaries of the history of the Christian Church
and dividing it into periods.
If by the Christian Church we mean the society of believers in Jesus Christ, as
his Savior, then the history of the Church should begin precisely with Jesus Christ, as
preacher of the Gospel and Redeemer, and his first followers as a society,
who took from Jesus Christ the starting point of his life and development.
Consequently, the starting point of church history is the activity of Jesus Christ and
His disciples. Jesus Christ preached the gospel. This sermon and
forms itself ?????? ??????, from which a complex of phenomena emanates,
constituting Christianity. This means that the starting point of Christian preaching is not
just the gospel of Jesus, as God appeared in the flesh, but also the gospel of Jesus, as
one who, through death, passed on to life and through this made it possible
further development of their business and at the same time history.
However, the performance of Jesus with the preaching of a well-known doctrine and the success of the sermon
presuppose the preparedness of the human world for the preaching of Christ. "I sent
you to reap what you did not work on; others worked, but you entered their labor "
(John 4: 36-38) - Jesus Christ once said to his disciples. Therefore it is necessary
first depict the process of preparing the human race for the coming
Christ the Redeemer, both in the pagan and in the Jewish world, and then
present a picture of the state of the pagan and Jewish peoples during
coming of Jesus Christ. - But the preparation of humanity and its state in the century
Of the Nativity of Christ are introductory, propaedeutic subjects in relation to
our main task is the life of the Christian Church. Therefore, they are not included in the volume
history of the Church, but constitute an introductory chapter to it.
The first chapter of the history of the Christian Church should be about Jesus Christ, i.e. her
Founder. This is the terminus a quo of our science. And he is not indisputable. Some scholars
for example, professors Lebedev, Bolotov, Diamonds and others graduate from
Church history programs - activities of Jesus Christ and His disciples, i.e. the whole
apostolic age on the following basis: "Apostolic age," says for example
Professor Bolotov (Introduction vol. 1, 227), "I do not consider it to be related to the church
stories. Met. Filaret attributed this period to biblical history, and this
true for many reasons. The biblical story has its source
inspired books that we believe in; therefore we
we are deprived of the right to conduct a critical study of the sources of the biblical story with
the same freedom as the study of the sources of later history ... That's why,
when presenting church history, we consider it our task to present only such
events that do not take place in the Bible. "- Others add to this:
the Christian Church, as a well-known canonical institution, arose only during
2nd century: The 1st century was the age of charisma, extraordinary gifts. However, how can
study the history of the Christian Church without first saying anything about Jesus
Christ as its Founder - about the apostles, as continuers of the work of Christ - and
about the birth of the Church on the day of Pentecost and the development throughout the apostolic
century? It would be a more serious omission, as if studying an important
essay, disregarding the first fundamental chapter of it.
Incomparably more controversy is raised by another question: what boundaries should be indicated,
when dividing the vast church-historical material, embracing the 19th centuries, -
for separate periods. Most historians follow suit in this case.
of general history, i.e. divide church history into ancient, middle and new. At
The point of dividing between the middle and the new is indisputable: it is a reformation, i.e. Start
XVI century, for the West, and for the East - the fall of Constantinople (1453). But in
There is a great deal of controversy about the boundaries between ancient and middle history.
Some see the edge at the end of the 6th century. - the death of Pope Gregory (in 604), others - in
the end of the 7th century, - the conclusion of the Monophysite disputes at the V1st Ecumenical Council and
streamlining church life at the Trull Cathedral, closely associated with the V1
ecumenical council. Professor Bolotov, from the point of view of historical development,
inclined to draw the border precisely at the end of the 7th century, when, after the 6th ecumenical
cathedral, there was a formal falling away from the Church of the Monophysite communities (I,
Introduction, 217-220). - It seems to us, from a church-historical point of view,
the conclusion of the ancient period must be recognized as the 11th century, i.e. time (1054 g).
separation of Churches, although, it must be admitted, for contemporaries and immediate descendants
this event was not at all as important as it later received. - But
this long period is primarily divided into two parts by the time of Constantine
The Great, or rather, by the Edict of Milan published by him in 313; then he has more
suitable units. These are: a) half of the 5th century. or the Cathedral of Chalcedon is
the end, the conclusion of the Greek classical period in the history of the Church and
the transition to the Byzantine is an event of great importance not only in the church, but also in
state life, b) the second subdivision, we consider the VIII century, the time
the end of the ecumenical councils. Since that time, the relationship between the east and
the Western Church is changing dramatically. Under the influence of various circumstances,
The Patriarch of Constantinople, feeling the strength, began to fight with the popes for
recognition by the latter by the "Byzantine pope" in the East, including
sense that the popes no longer interfere in the affairs of the Eastern Church, leaving her
the jurisdiction of the Patriarch of Constantinople. The dads could not agree with this. Then
The Patriarch of Constantinople preferred a break with the popes, and thus, by
break with the Western Church, he received what he could not achieve by peaceful
negotiations. The crisis dragged on until the middle of the 11th century, i.e. before 1054
1. The ancient period of the indivisible Church extends to the middle of the 11th century. (1054).
2. Medieval embraces from the half of the XI century. before the fall
Constantinople in 1453, and in the West before the speech of Luther (1516).
3. The new period begins from the indicated points - in the East from 1453, and in
West since 1517 and continues to this day.

Church historiography
Under the name of historiography we mean the experiments of a more or less coherent presentation
life of the Church according to historical sources and personal observations. The emergence
such experiences testifies to the fact that the Church has already become a historical force, and
such a position in the world is beginning to be clearly recognized.
The first historiographic monument is the book of the Acts of the Apostles,
belonging to Saint Luke, depicting the birth of the Church of Christ in the world and
the first decades of its existence. Then mention should be made of "" ?????????? "
(Memories) Egesippus, a work that appeared around 170, distinguished by
however, more polemical than historical character. - In the first half
III century. Julius Africanus was the first to indicate in his chronicle the main dates of the Christian
church history and put it in relation to the events of secular history. To that
the chronicle of Hippolytus also approximately dates back to time.
Church history is usually divided into two periods: the first from the beginning to the appearance
Lutheranism, the second from Lutheranism to the present day. The first period, in general
speaking, the time of collecting church historical material, and the second - processing
his.

Period I.
The father of church history is Eusebius, Bishop of Palestinian Caesarea (338).
He composed four historical works of different merit and significance:
1. Chronicle (????????? ???????), in two books, brief history the world from the beginning and
before his time, with the main attention being paid to the chronology,
2. Church history in ten books, embracing time from the beginning
Christianity until 324. The work is very important, although not free from shortcomings
in terms of criticism of sources, their interpretation, incompleteness (there are almost no
Western) and poorly systematic presentation.
3. The life of Constantine the Great in 4 books, an essay par excellence
panegyric, but not devoid of great historical significance, in particular
due to the fact that it contains many official documents
4. "Collection of ancient martyrs" (Ecclesiastical history IV, 15), from which
only, perhaps, a separate chapter or an appendix about
"Palestinian martyrs." The main merit of Eusebius is a careful study of
church traditions and rich, literal borrowing from ancient writings -
sources that have not survived to us. Second ecclesiastical history of the Cappadocian,
Eunomian Philostorgia, stretching from 318-423, preserved only in
extracts from Photius. Philostorgius wrote in the interests of Arianism.
The successors of Eusebius in the 5th century were Socrates, the Constantinople lawyer
(scholastic): he wrote church history in VII books (305-439); Hermiy Sozomen,
also a lawyer; his church history in nine books (324-423) is in
strong dependence on Socrates; Bishop Theodorite of Cyrus wrote the church
a story in five books (320-428). In the VI century, Theodore the Reader, who first made
extract from the sources mentioned (1st book), and then continued by Socrates
until 527, i.e. the year of death of Justinian I (2nd book). Antiochian scholastic
Evagrius left a historical work in six books, embracing from time to time
431 to 594
In the Middle Ages, there is a decline in church historiography; special works
does not appear, and church history joins the general one. This is the chronicle
Theophanes, from 285 to 11 June 813 with numerous successors - chronicle
George Sinkella, George Amartola, Patriarch Nicephorus, Leo Deacon (X century),
Anna Komnen, Zonara, Kedrin and many others (in the 11th-12th centuries). From the subsequent
time the most informative are the chronicles of Nikita Choniates (XIII century),
Nicephorus Grigor (XIV century), John Cantacuzen and Nicephorus Callistus. From the last
(T in the 1st half of the XIV century) we have church history in eighteen books,
from the Nativity of Christ to 610
From Syrian sources, the historian of the 6th century is worthy of special mention. John of Ephesus;
from the eastern in general - the Alexandrian patriarch Eutychios (+ 940), who wrote on
Arabic.
In the West, the business began with translations and compilations of Eastern historiographic
essays.
Blessed Jerome translated the chronicle of Eusebius and continued it until 378.
Rufinus translated the ecclesiastical history of Eusebius and continued it until 395.
mention the Historia sacra (beginning of the 5th century). Sulpicius Severus, chronicle of Paul Orosius,
pupil blessed Augustine... Cassiodorus (died in the 2nd half of the 5th century).
used the Greek translated into Latin by the scholastic Epiphanius
historians Socrates, Sozomenes and Theodorite and compiled an abbreviated church
history, the so-called Historia tripartia - the main textbook for the Middle Ages.
From the IX century. the famous Abbot Anastasius, who compiled church history.

Period II.
If in the first period, as already noted, there was actually only a collection of facts,
accumulation of church-historical material and only the most
imperfect experiences of processing it, then in the 2nd period a comprehensive
critical study of the finished material and the systematic construction of the past
life of the Church. The main reason for the scientific upsurge was the reformation, the desire
to justify and defend a huge religious movement. Moreover, it is natural
tendencies appeared which were so detrimental to the scientific character of the work. The first
church-historical work on Protestant soil was "Magdeburgskie
Century "(1559-1574), collective work, under the leadership of Matei Flotius,
embracing 13 centuries and having the goal of proving the entire necessity of the Luther case,
matching it with the first Christian centuries and vice versa - decisive
deviation from them Catholicism. The Catholic Church responded with no less respectable
by the work of "Annals" of Caesar Baronius in 12 volumes (Cotay, 1588-1607), brought to
1198, with many important documents attached. In the XVII century. a special
interest in historiography in the Catholic Church in France.
The Jansenite-minded, richly gifted S. Tilmon composed "Memoires pour
servir a l "historie ecclesiastique des six premiers siecles," in 16 volumes
(Paris 1693-1712). This work is an extremely elaborate mosaic of
sources, and gives monographs about individuals, sects and cathedrals. Claudius
Fleury wrote in 20 volumes a detailed church history "Histoire
ecclesiastique "until 1414, Paris 1691-1720. Dogmatic-polemic direction
centurizers by the end of the 17th century. pushed aside by the practical-religious. Pietism, in
face of the mystic Gottfried Arnold (+ 1714) who simultaneously attacked the Catholic
church and Protestant orthodoxy, helped
dogmatic domination. In his work "Unparteische Kirchen und
Ketzergeschichte "(before 1688. B. 1-2. Z? Rich, 1699) Arnold takes the side
heretics, oppressed and persecuted by the official representatives of the Church; in them he
sees the light, on the contrary, in the official Church - only spiritual death. In the face
John Mozheim (Mosheim, † 1755) is a representative of the already new church
history, frees church history from elements unusual for it and
paves the way for a pragmatic understanding of church history. His disciple
was Shrekk (+ 11812), who left valuable church history works. XVIII century was
the beginning of rationalism in theology, the first culprit of which is the Jew
Solomon Zemier († 11791). The supernatural element of his followers was
exiled, and everything in church history was sought to be explained from ordinary human
motives and actions. In the sense of this subjective pragmatic coverage
wrote to A.T. Schlittler ("Grundriss der Geschichte der dmstiichen Kirche."
Gottingen, 1782) and Gencke. Jacob Planck (11832), also credited
direction, more solid and less subjective.
The 19th century brought a lot of new and beneficial things into our area, which is now freed from
confessional interests and subjectivity and embarked on the path of objective
research into the past life of the Church. The new historiography is scientific and
imbued with the idea of organic development, the 19th century was marked by
the emergence of three church-historical schools - Neanderova, Novotyubingen and
Richlian. The Schleiermacher-Neander school recognizes the divine character for
personality of Jesus Christ, is distinguished by an orthodox direction in building
church history, only in church organization and worship, and especially sees
an admixture of the human element in the "presbytery caste." "Humanity has not yet
could establish itself at the height of a purely spiritual religion; the Jewish point of view was
closer to understanding Christianity for the educated masses who have just lagged behind
from paganism "(Aug. Neander. Allgemeine Geschichte. V-I. S. 297-298). To this
school belongs to Bidemann, Guericke, Kurtz, Schenkel, Hagenbach, Ullmann, Gaze (11891
G). and Von Schaff (1819-1893).
The Baur School, or New Tubingen, Sees Struggle in the History of the Early Church
between Judeo-Christianity and Pagan-Christianity, which ended in the II
century by mutual concessions and reconciliation. Zeller belongs to the Baur school,
Schwegler, Strauss, Kestlin, Gilgenfeld, O. Pflei-derer and others.
The Richlian school is only a branch of the Tübingen, but denies the struggle between
apostles and does not attribute any role to Judeo-Christianity in education
the original Church. However, this school also recognizes the change in the teaching of the apostles.
Jesus Christ and the message to him of a universal nature. Tubingen and
The Richlian schools do not recognize Jesus Christ as the Son of God in the proper sense.
The most prominent representative of the Richlian School is Harnack, who
belong, among other things, such outstanding works as "Geschichte der
a "ltchristlichen Literatur bis Eusebius," B. I-III, "Lehrbuch der
Dogmengeschichte, "B. I-III," Das Wesen des Christentums "and many others.

Other writings by German Protestant authors include:
D.W. Moeller-Kaweran, H. v. Schubert, Lehrbuch der Kirchengeschichte. T? Bitigen
und Leipzig, 1902.
D.K. Mutter, Kirchengeschichte. I-II. Breslau, 1902.
Gust. Kröger, Kirchengeschichte. 1909.
Sammlung von G. Kruger, Handbuch der Kirchengeschichte ...

Catholic:
F.K. Funk, Lehrbuch der Kirchengeschichte. V. Aufl., 1907.
Joseph Kardinal Hergenrother, Handbuch der allgemeinen Kirchengeschichte,
neubearbeitet von Joh. Peter Kirch, VI. AufL, Freiburg, 1924.
L. Dwhesne, Histoire ancienne de 1 "Eglise, I-III. Paris, 1908; Origines du culte
chretien. 4th ed. Paris, 1908; Eglises separees, 1896.
Pierre Bafiffol, L "Eglise naissante et le Catholicisme. Paris, 1909. La Paix
Constantinienne et "le Catholicisme. Paris, 1914.
J Tixeront, Histoire des dogmes. Paris, 1909.

Theological encyclopedias:
1. Wetzer und Weltes, Kirchenlexikon oder Enziklop? Die der katholischen
Theologie und ihrer Hilfswissenschaften. Aufl., Begonnen von J. Kard.
Hergenr? Ther, fortgesetzt von Fr. Kaulen. 12. Bd. Freiburg, 1882-1901;
Registerband, 1905.
2. Kirchliches Handlexikon, herausgeg. von M. Buchberger, 1. Bd. M? Nchen, 1907-
II Bd. 1907 ss.
3. Realenziklop? Die f? R protestantische Theologie und Kirche, begr? Ndet von J.J.
Herzog, in Aufl. herausgeg. von A. Hauck. 21 Bd. Leipzig, 1896-1908. Bd. XXII
(Register), 1909.
4. Dictionnaire de th? Ologie catholique pu "blie par Vacant, continue par
Mangenot. Paris, 1899 ss.
5. Dicdonnaire d "histoire et de g? Ographic ecclesiastiques, publi? Sous la
direction de A. Baudrillart, A. Vogt et U. Rourles. Paris, 1909.
6. A. d "Ales, Diceionnaire apologetique de la foi catholique. Paris, 1908 ss.
7. There are a lot of perk-historical treatises in The Catholic Encyclopedia. New
York, 1907 ss.
8. For church history of the early centuries Smith and Wace, Dictionary of Christian
Biography, literature, Sects and Doctrines during the first eight Centuries. 4
Vol. London, 1877-1887.

Introductory chapter
An introductory chapter to the history of the Christian Church contains the answer to two
Question: What was the preparation of the human race for the coming of Jesus
Christ? And what was the state of the pagan and Jewish world at the time
coming of Jesus Christ?

1. Preparation of the human race for the coming of Jesus Christ.
The promise of salvation was given to the forefathers who had sinned very soon, during
pronouncing judgment on them (Genesis, 3 ch.). However, thousands of years passed before
this salvation appeared in Christ the Savior. According to the apostle (Gal. 4.4), the Son of God
incarnated only when the "fullness of times," was fulfilled ??????? ??? ??????;
why did it take a long period between the fall and salvation?
Salvation could not be forced upon people. It was impossible to save a man without
consciousness of their need for salvation, without the desire for this salvation, without an active
participation in the salvation of his free will.
Throughout the entire Old Testament history, the preparation of the human race takes place
to Christ: in Judaism salvation was prepared for Judaism, but in paganism -
salvation for humanity. The Jewish people were prepared in a positive way,
through the direct guidance of God. The pagan peoples were provided
to themselves (Cf. Acts 14: 16-17), they remained outside the direct control of
Of God. They, "went on their ways." However, they were not completely deprived of mercy
God. "For what can be known about God is evident to them, because God has revealed to them" (Rom.
1.19-20). "They show that the work of the law is written in their hearts, about which
their conscience and their thoughts bear witness ... "(Rom. 2: 14-15).
Scripture calls pagan idols demons; but that in paganism everything
there was only demonic - it does not say that. If many church writers
(Tertullian, Lactanpius, Arnobius) emphasized the demonic, repulsive
side in paganism, then others (St. Justin, Theophilus, Origen, Clement
Alexandria, Basil the Great, John Chrysostom) found in him a deep
a presentiment of the deity, the divine Logos, who scattered the seed, the rays of truth.
The Jewish people were prepared through the promises and the law (cf. Rom. 9.4). The promises
were given to Abraham and his seed for the salvation of all people through him. The law was
introduced after the promise after 430 years (Gal. 3-17) and by no means canceled
the promise, and played a service role with it. He had precisely pedagogical
??????????, (cf. Gal. 3:24) meaning, to awaken in a person the thirst for salvation and
lead him to salvation. He achieved this by finding out, proving to a person
deep distortion of nature by sin, when a person did not do the good that
wanted, but did the evil that he hated (cf. Rom. 7:15, 23). Through this law how
would increase the number of human sins. "The law came after, and so
transgression multiplied "(Rom. 5:20). The Law"
crimes "(Gal. 3.19). As a result, a person came to the consciousness of his
powerlessness, his own helplessness, and the more the thirst for salvation aroused in him.
"Wretched man I am! Who will deliver me from this body of death" (Rom. 7:24). belief
promises and gave this hope of salvation. Positive (and real)
the results of the preparation of the Jewish people were expressed in the creation of a favorable
soil for the appearance of the Savior, in the birth of the Mother of God among the Jewish people and
in the presentation of the first followers of Christ's teachings.
The pagan world is an olive growing wildly (cf. Rom. 9:17) - had to exhaust
their natural strengths and show what a person can do by standing outside
the immediate environment of divine revelation. By the time of Jesus' coming
Christ, the pagan peoples were united under the wings of the Roman eagle not only
political power, but also spiritual power in the form of Hellenism. The idea of the mighty
and the sublime, as it was shown especially by the Eastern peoples - the idea of aesthetically
beautiful, as the Greeks expressed it, the idea of public benefit, law and
justice, as the Romans developed it, are all positive results
preparation of the pagans for Christ, all this was to find its sanctification in
truly Holy, who could sanctify everyone and exalt everything above earthly.

2. The state of the pagan and Jewish world
by the time of the coming of Jesus Christ.
By the time of the coming of Jesus Christ, the entire Mediterranean world was under
by the power of Rome.

Political Review.
In the age of the Nativity of Christ, the Roman kingdom stretched from the Euphrates to
Atlantic Ocean, from the African Desert to the Rhine. It hugged 600 tons of miles
with a population of over 120 million. Along with the Roman kingdom already then had
the meaning of the Parthian kingdom adjoining it in the east. It appeared for III
century BC (from 256 g). and covered areas from the Euphrates to the Indus and
from the Caspian Sea to the Persian Gulf and the Indian Ocean. This kingdom
put an end to the founder of the new Persian kingdom of the Sassanid dynasty
Artaxerxes I (IV), in 226 after the birth of Christ, and founded the middle
the Persian kingdom, which became a restless neighbor of the Roman kingdom. TO
north-west of the Parthian kingdom was the Edesian or Osromic
(? srh? -nisches) state. It lasted until 216, then became part of
Roman Empire. To the north of the Parthian kingdom lay Armenia: little Armenia
even before the birth of Christ became a part of the Roman Empire, and the great
Armenia was under the rule of Rome under Trajan, from 259-286 was Persian
province, at other times it had its own princes. South of Roman and
Parthian kingdom lay Arabia, to the west - Africa. In Europe, they lived east of
The Rhine and north of the Danube are Germans. They gradually merged with others.
Germanic peoples - Franks, Saxons, Alemans, Goths and others, and
threatened Rome. From the middle of the 3rd century, the Goths began to triumphantly press on
the northern limits of the Roman kingdom, so that the Romans had to yield to them
Dacia, conquered at the beginning of the 2nd century by Trajan, from which to the Emperor Aurelian
(271 g). I had to withdraw my legions.
What Alexander the Great was striving for was achieved only by the Romans,
those. found a world monarchy. But the continuous wars with which this
the goal was achieved, turned flourishing countries into deserts, weakened trade and
industry and everywhere created an intolerable state of uncertainty. People
only gradually mastered and got used to the new order of things. The east has come
rather back to normal than the West. Roman principality, which was for
the Roman people are unbearable for both political and religious reasons, there is no
met with opposition; there, on the contrary, with a sense of gratitude they accepted
the benefits of the new management. Christians later saw in the Roman monarchy a special
action of Providence. One thing is certain: in the conditions and limits of the old Roman
kingdom, the preaching of a universal religion was unthinkable. Final victory
the monarchy in the West was helped by Hellenism; he generally became the main pillar of the world
unity. He gave culture to the Roman state and endowed it with a world language, in
spoken by educated people of all nations, or at least understood everything
his. He subdued the proud, victorious, crushing mood of Rome to the feeling
patience in relation to the variegated diversity of the peoples of the world. State
management has completely absorbed this new phenomenon of life in the form of Hellenism.
As a result, trade and all kinds of intercourse developed rapidly. Comfortable
highways networked the country and served both for management purposes and
trade. For the most part, the destroyed cities were rebuilt. Intercommunication
in the country, in addition to serviceable roads, there were sea voyages. Thanks to all this
communication between the inhabitants of the state was maintained by correct postal
relations. But mainly the unification of nationalities was achieved thanks to
Greek: it was the language of commerce, constant communication and transactions. Certainly,
this language was already very different from classical Greek.
However, in this beautiful picture of life, which instructed the Roman peoples with
the foundation of the world monarchy, there were also shadows. Next to the accumulation of wealth in
large, commercial cities, with an increase in capital and their concentration in
few hands, in parallel there was terrible poverty, the multiplication of the proletariat.
Increased world communication at the beginning of the Roman conquests led to the destruction of
free peasantry in Italy. The noble aspirations of the Gracchus brothers are not
were crowned with success. The easier the import of foreign grain became, the faster and
the fall in prices followed more naturally, and the more difficult it became for the peasants
struggle for existence. The consequence of this was the gradual disappearance
peasantry, and their farms began to pass into the hands of rich horsemen and they
turn into huge estates (latifundia) and be processed with the help of slave
cheap labor. Imperial time was accompanied by an unexpected fall of the world
trade, which was naturally inextricably linked with industry and
contributed to its prosperity. As a result, small
artisans in the cities. In any case, independent, independent
their existence has become almost impossible. The situation has become even more aggravated
due to the fact that the state failed to implement the correct tax system and
distribution of taxes among the population. Since the Roman citizens did not carry any
military service, and were also exempted from direct taxes, then the whole burden
tax was transferred to the province. The collection of taxes there was transferred
tax farmers, and the arbitrariness of senior and junior officials knew no bounds. Can
imagine the social state and experiences of the lower classes, completely
crushed by economic labor. They naturally looked for at least a minute
forgetting the burdens of life in dreams of otherworldly bliss, a better life in
another world.
From the grave, even disastrous consequences of such a development of affairs in the political and
economic life tried to hide through the foundation of various unions, friendships,
partnerships. And then the time was the classic era of unions. As well as
craft unions (workshops of blacksmiths, silversmiths), unions for public
position (priests, merchants, musicians) - there were unions that had their task
foster a simple sense of camaraderie (e.g. monthly meetings and
feasts on the account of the general cash desk); there were others who pursued purely
social goals, as the funds of the sick and the dying, are the Collegia tenuiorum and
Collegia funeraticia; of these, the latter were especially comforting for
the poor. Religious unions, which had
its task is to send, perform a cult to one or another deity according to customs
their countries (??????, ??????). Everyone had a known connection with religious life.
organization, even if they served secular purposes, therefore the priest was nominated for
first place. It was very important that taking care of the veneration of your local deity
not only organized unions, but along the way received the rights of citizenship in
Roman kingdom foreign cults (Isis, Serapis and Syrian deities). Often
recognized (Weingarten, Heinrici, Goetsch and others) dependence of Christian communities
from the organizations of these religious unions could not be proven. But what
the emergence of Christian communities was facilitated through the presence of such unions - this
indisputably. Since the unions were often engaged in politics under innocent names, and,
due to the lack of control over them, their activities were all the more dangerous. The emperor
Trajan banned all secret alliances and did not allow the establishment of even such organizations,
who could pursue the most desirable tasks as he did not allow
Fire Society Institutions in Bithynia.

The political state of Judea.
The eastward movement of Alexander the Great affected the Jewish people, although
the political consequences of this were minor: the Jews were now dependent
from the Macedonians, as before from the Persians. Dispute over the inheritance of Alexander the Great
made Palestine a bone of contention until the country fell under a prolonged
domination of the Seleucids. Naturally now the Hellenistic influences begin,
as earlier Babylonian and Persian. Hellenistic influence has penetrated life
Jews so deeply that it led to the formation of parties in Judaism. -
The high priesthood took the side of the Hellenists; they were opposed
chasidim "the pious,"
religious requirements of the law, behind them was the mass of the people. Antiochus IV's Attempt
Epifan (175-164 g). to forcibly Hellenize the entire people,
religion - failed. The response to his brutal policies was a strong upswing
religious enthusiasm. This led to a rebellion led by
Maccabees. The Syrians were forced to yield: limiting themselves to collecting tribute, they
provided the country to the friendly Greek upper class and the Asmonians with their
adherents. The struggle for power over the people that began within the country led to
the formation of religious and political parties: the Hasidim were transformed into Pharisees, and
the highest presbytery - in Saddikits or Sadducees. Asmoneans sided
the latter. The ongoing struggle between the aristocratic party and
democratic Pharisees who had an unchanging influence in the Sanhedrin, and especially
between the latter and the Asmonaeans - entailed the intervention of the Romans, who
put an end to the Seleucid domination. Namely, Ptolemy in the fall of 63 BC.
conquered Jerusalem and forced the Jews to pay tribute to Rome. Since then, political
the changes in Rome also mattered to Palestine. The Asmoneans managed to get themselves in
Rome some political power over Judea. When was the last Asmonaeus
executed, the Edomite Herod (37 BC - 4 AD) became his heir.
Despite his strength of character and openly expressed devotion to religion, he did not
managed to win over the Jewish people. Management dissatisfaction has increased
even more so when, after his death, his sons began feuds. Dissatisfied
the Romans now handed over the administration of Judea to the imperial procurator (6 BC
R.H). Through this, the foundation was laid for the division between Rome and Judaism.
the national party, which led to the catastrophe of the 70th year.

Herod the Great and his sons. Herod was born in 37 BC from
the stadtholder of Idumea Antipater and his wife of Arabian descent, and both
a Jew, has always been suspicious of the Jewish people. He was energetic, smart, but
extremely ambitious, He gave his name splendor through luxurious buildings
(temples, theaters, castle, water pipes). In the last years of his life, he was distressed
civil strife among his sons from Mariamne - Alexander and Aristobulus - and
Idomean relatives from the sister of Salome. Herod tried to prevent
danger through murder. Of his 9 sons, Alexander and Aristobulus were killed in
7th year before the birth of Christ. The elder Antipater fell victim to his suspicion
father a few days before his death. According to his will, Archelaus (4-6 to
R.H). received control over Judea, Samaria and Idumea with the title of ethnarch. Antipa
(4-39 g). was placed over Galilee and Perea with the rank of tetrarch. Philip (4-34
G). with the title of the tetrarch also took possession of Batanea, the Trachonite region and
Avranite. Antipas was the king of the country where Jesus lived. He shared with his father
passion for luxury buildings, feasts, women and royal splendor. V
in recent years, he fell under the influence of Herodias, the granddaughter of Herod the Great, who in
first marriage was married to his half-brother; he sent his wife to her father
Arefe. Antipas became a victim of the intrigue of his brother-in-law Agrippa I. Philip -
the only one of the sons of Herod, about whom the offspring retained a good memory (Joseph
Flavius. Antiquities XVIII, 6-4). For a short time, the kingdom united in the hands
already mentioned Agrippa I, son of Aristobulus (41-44). He made an alliance with
Pharisees and persecuted Christians to please them (Compare Acts 12 chap.). After it
sudden death (Acts 12.23) the emperor Claudius subjugated Judea to Rome.

Judea under Roman rule.
Augustus introduced in Judea the same form of government that was used in Egypt.
At the head was the procurator (?????????, ??????), who, formerly independent in
his district, however, was subordinate to the stadtholder in Syria. The first stadtholder
was Coponius (6-9 years) ..., Pontius Pilate (26-36), Anthony Felix (52-60),
Porcius Festus (60-62), Albin (62-64), the last Hessius Flor (64-66).
The final submission of Judea to Rome by Emperor Claudius caused the Jews
great annoyance. Restless state vigorously maintained
nationalist chauvinists - zealots (branch of the Pharisees), strengthened
the inability or meanness of individual procurators - led to a bloody
pacifying the disobedient. The irritation increased when Caligula ordered his
statues in Jerusalem, in the Temple ... Along with the zealots, there were Sicarii, agents
secret political assassinations. False prophets acted and rebelled (for example -
Fevda); they assured the people of the near end of the domination of the Romans (Exit of the Egyptian
Prophet to the Mount of Olives). The cruelty and greed of the last two
procurators made war inevitable. This war with the Jews was waged by the Roman
the commander Vespasian, and when, in 69, he was elected Caesar, his son Titus
completed the work, finally conquering Jerusalem in the 70th year.

The world outlook of the ancient world in the century of the Nativity of Christ.
Spiritual, or educational-moral-religious state of the ancient world in the century
The Nativity of Christ is characterized by the development and widespread distribution (i.e.
domination) of Hellenism.
When the great Macedonian conqueror Alexander, son of Philip, a disciple
Aristotle, marched victoriously against the Persian kingdom, armed not only with
steel sword, but also with Greek enlightenment, then the East, although already decrepit, all
I found enough strength in myself not to obey the Greek spirit, but, with
mutual influence, to unite with him in Hellenism. With such a name since time
Draisen is the name for the new cultural movement that was formed from the mixing
Greek educational elements with oriental. It is impossible to determine
how much they entered the so-called Hellenism and how they united, on the one hand,
property Greek culture, and on the other hand - the traditional heritage
East. Here we can only talk about general features and approximately. Undoubtedly
by its nature, the heritage of the East is a phenomenon of predominantly religious
character; the philosophical direction was the hallmark of the Greek
spirit. Hellenism is a very complex phenomenon of the setting sun of the ancient world; he
made itself felt in the field of politics and law, religion and science, language and
literature, in public life and in private life.
We find a general, but also an exact description of Hellenism in the famous Harnack.
For Hellenism, according to him, the following phenomena, moods and concepts are characteristic:

1. Penetration of Eastern - Syrian and Persian religions into the empire, especially
from the time of Pius, - religions that had some features in common with Christianity.
They aroused new needs in the souls of people, which could only be satisfied
Christianity.
2. The decline that has come due to the democratization of society and other reasons
exact science and an increased respect for mystical religious philosophy seeking
revelations and hungry for miracles.
3. Sharp separation between soul (spirit) and body, more or less exclusive
preference for the spirit and the idea that it came from another higher world and wears
eternal life in itself, or at least capable of it. Confirmation through this
individualism.
4. Sharp separation between God and the world and the destruction of naive ideas about
their connection and unity.
5. As a consequence of divisions: clarification of the concepts of the Divine - via negarionis et
eminentiae (the path of denial and exaltation); only now it becomes
incomprehensible, indescribable, but also great and good.
6. Further, as a consequence of the preference of the spirit, the humiliation of the world and the consciousness that he
dungeon of the spirit.
7. The conviction that the connection with the flesh is demeaning and desecrating for the spirit.
8. Seeking salvation as salvation from the world and flesh.
9. The conviction that all salvation is a preservation for eternal life, that it is
associated with consciousness and purification.
10. Confidence that the salvation of the soul, as a return to God, is accomplished
gradually.
11. The almost certainty that salvation, therefore also the Savior, already exists.
12. The conviction that all liberating means must be involved in knowledge, but
are not exhausted by it; in the end they must bring and report
real divine power.

In short, the hallmarks of the Hellenistic worldview are:

"a) elimination of borders between Hellenes and barbarians, thanks to acquaintance with
barbaric culture (Syrian, Babylonian and Persian) and as a result of this
cosmopolitanism, which saw salvation in the establishment of a world monarchy instead of
nation states;
"b) individualism: in place of universal well-being provided
state, became ?????????? individual - the ideal of the sage, who his own happiness
finds in himself (cynics);
"c) realism - philosophy turns into a teacher of worldly well-being;
"d) religious syncretism due to familiarity with Eastern religions,
attracted to themselves by an enthusiastic or grossly sensual character, as well
superstitious and magical rites (oracles, astrological interpretations,
mysterious actions) ... As a consequence of such syncretism, the strongest
stimulus to monotheism, in which the rich knowledge of alien cults bore its
unifying expression and its point of unity ... The bearers of this culture were almost
the Greeks are everywhere, for the barbarians it was only a polish.

The moods and aspirations just indicated of the Hellenistic period were created,
mainly due to special philosophical directions and
philosophical and ethical currents, as well as - religious beliefs of the studied era.
We will talk about this.
Having reached in the philosophy of Plato and Aristotle, as it were, his ultimate
perfection and, as if having exhausted his strength, the Greek genius began to quickly
lean towards your end. Which coincided and was largely due to
loss of political freedom from Greece. Greek thought, weary
theoretical analytical work, invariably strives to build a whole
philosophical outlook, instead of analysis and research, referring to the system and
dogma. Such a worldview is the need of time and renewed
culture. The Greek mythical religion has lost its strength, and for broad
educated circles its place was taken by philosophy, which therefore had to
give a system of information with a religious connotation. Development of political, civil
and public life ceased, and the Greek people plunged into ordinary
privacy; the horizon of the personality narrowed, and she began to limit herself
a small home circle. After political and public interests
were withdrawn from life, I had to turn to myself, to my inner
life, and the rational arrangement of personal life became the main task
existence. Naturally, under these conditions of life,
practical interests. Meanwhile, philosophical thought, as noted,
tired of solving theoretical questions, she took up ethical problems.
Three new philosophical schools corresponded to this direction of life,
speakers from the III century - Stoic, Epicurean and skeptical. They are not
dealing independently with metaphysical questions, and, in this case, adjoining
preceding philosophical systems, focused mainly on
ethical issues and solved the problem of human happiness. The apathy of the stoics
the self-righteousness of the epicureans and skeptics meant to create bliss precisely
personal life.

Stoicism. The founder of the Stoic school was Zeno (+ 264), and the most
Chrysipel (281-208) is a talented successor. The task of philosophy, according to
the opinion of the Stoics, is a scientifically grounded, scientific and moral
human activities. Together with the Cynics, the Stoics saw in human knowledge
only a means to virtuous behavior and the achievement of good, and most importantly
the purpose of philosophy was believed to be a guide to virtue, to correct
actions through exercise in them. Therefore, they defined philosophy as
exercise in virtue like ??????? ??????, i.e. exercise in reasonable
activities. But intelligent activity is impossible without a true, objective
knowledge, for reasonable behavior must correspond to the nature of man and all
things, and for this you need to know the laws of the universe and man. Therefore philosophy,
defined as "exercise in virtue," is at the same time "consciousness
divine and human. "Here the Stoics obviously follow Socrates,
proving the necessity of knowledge for virtue and putting the latter in dependence
from the first. From the specified definition of philosophy follows the need for two sciences
- physics and ethics.
The third science of the Stoic system - logic - has a methodological meaning,
technical and epistemological. It is necessary in the system of stoics to put ethics in
center of sciences or to the top, the path to which leads from logic through physics. Stoics
did not consider any significant difference between God and the world: according to them, between
there is no real difference between deity and primordial matter. Stoic system
is strictly pantheistic (but not materialistic, for the concept of force is
dynamism - they put it above matter). Universal mind, as a world-forming
power, bears the name ????? ???????????. Every creature, every object before its own
appearances in the world were thought of in the world mind, as concepts, and desired, as
certain goals of the development of the deity (????? ???????????). The doctrine of man
the Stoics work out with particular interest and complete consistency. It's clear here
the main provisions of the Stoic system are: materialism - in anthropology,
pantheism - in the construction of all human actions on a deity and monism in understanding
mental life. The soul, like everything real in the world, is material; she is inextricably
connected with the whole and cannot escape its fate. She must also at the end
of the world process to turn into primary matter, which is also to return to the deity,
like everyone else in the world. Hence, the Stoics, considering the life of the soul possible after the death of the body,
allowed, in a sense, an otherworldly continuation of the life of the soul. On the
a practical look might seem like they were teaching about immortality. And so it happened
for example, among the followers of the Roman Stoics. Under the influence of the atmosphere of his
time this idea of the ghostly immortality of the soul was especially developed by the Roman Stoic
Seneca (A.D. 3-65). Stoic ethics sees the highest good and the highest goal or
deity in a life consistent with nature. This is an intelligent life, it is also
virtuous; intelligent life, as a virtue, is the highest good. Unconditional
the price of virtue, as a good, is damaged if something outside
a person as a blessing, or the purpose of his life. Who, for example, together with Epicurus
enthrones pleasure, that virtue makes a slave. Virtue is not
needs no extraneous additions, but carries all the conditions in herself
happiness.
In the Stoic system, there is no place for politics, in its place is cosmopolitanism. He
is not something superficial in the system of stoicism, but is closely related to it. To all people
the same mind is inherent; all members of one body, or, as it is wonderful, in
religious form, expressed Epictetus (c. 120 A.D.): all brothers, because all
in the same way have God as the Father. A characteristic feature of the stoic system
is fatalism. Resignation to rock is a favorite theme of many stoic writers ...
But fate can put a person (sage) in a position that is
unbearable for him. In this case, it was allowed to get rid of life through
suicide. Many very important in the development of the Stoic school - Zeno, Cleant,
Eratosthenes, Antipater and many others committed suicide. Stoicism is not only
philosophical, but also a religious system. Due to his connection with Platonism, he
replaced for the educated, to a certain extent, religion and the support of moral
life. A brilliant representative of later Stoicism is Posidonius of
Apamea in Syria (about 50 BC).
The Romans reacted with great attention to Stoicism, he was especially in spirit.
The founder of Roman Stoicism is Panetius, and the main representative was
Annei Seneca, very influential in his personal position (educator of Nero)
and known for subtle humanism (originally from Cordoba, in Spain). His look at
death, as a birthday in eternal life, and reasoning about the complete bliss of the world
the other world, together with the religious foundations of his teachings, gave rise to
legend that he was converted to Christianity by the Apostle Paul. Emperor Mark
Aurelius found great consolation in his teaching and in the lame slave "saw his
teachers and sample. "
Epicureanism. The teachings of Epicurus (341-270 g). as little original as
stoic, and closely related to the latter. The main principle of stoicism
is materialistic monism, and Epicureanism is based on
materialistic atomism. If the materialistic pantheism of the Stoics came out of
philosophy of Heraclitus, the mechanical atomism of the Epicureans has its source
philosophy of Democritus, Although Epicurus himself told his students that he did not have
teachers and books, wherever he borrowed his teaching. Therefore, the students memorized
by heart his sayings and treated their teacher simply with reverence,
they created something like a cult for him, and after his death they elevated him directly to the heroes.
Undoubtedly, Epicurus had a close friendship with his students.
The goal of philosophy is delivered to the happiness of man, and philosophy is nothing else,
as an activity that helps us achieve happiness through thought and
word. If scientific activity does not serve this purpose, then it is unnecessary and
meaningless. Among the various knowledge, Epicurus attached importance more than others
the doctrine of nature (physics), because this is the only way to free the soul
from the horrors of superstition. If the thought of gods and death did not weigh us down, then we would not
would need no study of nature. Epicurus also attached importance
research about our desires, for they (research) could affect
their limitation and moderation.
In general, like the Stoics, the Epicureans recognized three sciences - logic (canon),
physics and ethics. The only, unconditional good, according to the teachings of Epicurus, is
pleasure, and the only unconditional evil is sorrow, sorrow. This provision is not
needs proof: it is obvious and is the scale of our
activities. All living beings from birth strive for pleasure and
avoid unhappiness. The essential and immediate foundation of bliss lies in
peace of mind, or ataraxia; positive pleasure is only
mediating condition of peace of mind insofar as it relieves
dissatisfaction with an unmet need ... if we believe reasoning
Epicurus, pleasure is the highest good, then we do not mean the pleasure of debauchery,
not sensual pleasure at all, but that the body should be free from sorrow and
soul from anxiety. For not revelry or drinking, not pleasure from boys and
women, not drinking friends make life pleasant, but a sober mind that
explores the foundations of every action and casts out prejudices, the most terrible enemies
our prosperity. The root of all and the greatest good is prudence, only it
makes us free. Our necessary needs are extremely uncomplicated, and they are easy
to satisfy, nature itself takes care of our happiness. Who lives according to
nature, he is never poor. The wise will not murmur against Zeus, having bread and
water. External misfortunes have no power over him, and bodily grief cannot
disturb the serenity of the sage. The wise can be happy with the torture itself. But
the epicurean system does not deny that bodily pleasure is primary,
and even - the last source of all pleasure. However, it must be entered
within the proper boundaries. (Epicurus subordinated bodily pleasures to spiritual ones). Everything
the rules of life are directed to one thing - to lead a person to happiness through
moderation of desires and abstinence from passions. Not an increase in wealth, but
limiting desires makes us rich. The human soul differs from the body only
quality of atoms, consisting of the most subtle, ethereal. If the connection between the soul and
body completely ceases, then its atoms are easily scattered, and the body
subject to decay.
Attitudes towards religion in both systems - Stoic and Epicurean -
inconsistent. Having no need with their own, i.e. purely materialistic point
view to talk about belief in gods, stoicism and epicureanism, nevertheless, very
argue in detail on this issue, recognize the gods and do not even completely deny
folk religion. According to Epicurus, the concept of gods and demons arose from
ignorance and fear; belief in Providence is a fairy tale (myth). According to Lucretius,
timor fecit primes deos. But on the other hand, the universality of belief in gods and desire
to see his ideal realized in them prompted Epicurus to recognize the gods. His
the gods are decidedly humanoid, though eternal and blessed. Possessing an espheric
body, they cannot live in our worlds, but are placed in the intervals between the worlds,
where, as Lucretius says, they are not disturbed by any bad weather, but live under
ever-clear sky. The gods can in no way be entrusted with the care of
the world and the circumstances of a person's life, for painful care would deprive them
bliss. They are completely free from labor and worries, they enjoy pure
happiness in the consciousness of their superiority. Society of the Gods is perfect
Society of Epicurean Philosophers. They all have that the last only can
to wish for yourself - eternal life, lack of worries and constant occasions for pleasant
conversations.
The third very significant and important trend in the philosophical thought of the Hellenistic
period is skepticism - but it does not at all resemble later skepticism,
those. deep doubt of the truth, taken to the extreme. Ancient skepticism
was a reflection of his time; he, together with the Stoics and Epicureans, pointed out
philosophy, the practical task and the dignity of theoretical research, measured
their influence on a person's life and their significance for his happiness; also his view
life was distinguished by an ethical character and the highest good relied in abstinence
from judgments (?????), a kind of apathy or ataraxia.
The first skeptic is considered Pyrrho of Elis (360-270). He did not leave after
your own essays; his teaching has to be judged by the works of one of his
pupils - Timona from Fliunt (320-230 g). Little is known about philosophy
Pyrrho can be expressed in three positions: a) we have nothing about the properties of objects
we know b) the correct attitude towards them consists in abstaining from any judgment,
and c) the result of all this is the coveted ataraxia. Timon to this
adds that for human happiness it is necessary to give an answer to the following
questions: 1) how things are created, 2) how should we relate to them, and 3) what are
there may be consequences for us of such an attitude.
Skepticism led to eclecticism, i.e. uncritical, subjective connection
various elements of knowledge. The fact is that skepticism has made all philosophical
currents, denying the truth in each of them; and eclecticism made the equation of the same
systems in another respect, recognizing a grain of truth behind each of them. Skepticism
did the fact that the statements of not one school were recognized as the truth, but all
little by little. With the emergence and development of eclecticism, it coincides or, more precisely, is in
communication the gradual conquest of the Hellenistic world by the Romans. The Romans were
are characterized by sober, worldly prudence and a strong will, as distinctive
traits. From this point of view, they also appreciated philosophy, measuring it
dignity for its practical suitability; philosophy that had no influence on
practical life, they did not recognize. They saw the task and benefit of philosophy in
strengthening moral fundamentals and preparing speakers and
state people. In view of this, the Greek philosophers, who taught science to their
Roman disciples had to adapt to their understanding, keep in mind their
mood and needs. This is already noticeable among such outstanding philosophers of their
time like Pantius and Antiochus. Representatives of eclecticism are Philo of
Thessalonian Larissa and Antiochus of Ascalon, who lived in the last century BC.
Cicero was a student of Philo. Besides them, Varro, Stoic Didyme, Paramon and
other. The latter perfectly described the task of the activities of his
predecessors, together and their own - compiling a true system of
teachings of all schools of thought, calling his school eclectic.
Eclecticism had great success in the field of religious and philosophical, until it was replaced
here by religious syncretism.
When the Greek culture clashed with the East, the influence of the East was opened
especially ancient folk beliefs and religious practices, customs that are now
gained importance in Greek life. These ancient Greek beliefs were
are related to the eastern, and now, with a mutual collision, they have intensified.
Religious mood among the peoples of the Roman state rose to the highest
degree. But the masses were not satisfied with the epicurean consciousness and belief in paradise
earthly life and with feverish zeal rushed in search of a higher
the mysterious satisfaction that she found in the fantastic cults of the East.
Philosophical "wisdom," which believed the meaning of life in virtue, has lost its
credit and was replaced by a tense expectation of a higher power and liberation from the world.
Under the pressure of such sentiments, Hellenistic philosophy had to give place
new shoots of religious mysticism. Their distinctive character is
striving through the revelation of the deity to receive knowledge and bliss.
At the same time, and in connection with this, the view of deity as a being develops.
infinitely towering above the world and standing far from it. It in itself is already
cannot touch the sensual sinful world. Need a series of events and
divine intermediaries between deity and man; so usually
demons and the world soul were considered. To enter into communion with the deity through these
intermediaries, individuals must become in the service of the deity and through various
cleansing agents and especially the mysteries to make oneself capable of communicating with
deity and worthy of reverence among people. Thus revelation
is declared the source of philosophy and all knowledge in general. In a word, "when
lost confidence in knowledge, then threw themselves into the arms of faith. "
The main religious and philosophical trends of this nature are
New Pythagoreanism and Platonism. The center of movement is mainly
Alexandria.
New Pythagoreanism, which appeared in the last century BC, claimed to be
close connection with ancient Pythagoreanism. But it had no right to it,
besides any combinations with numbers. The Pythagorean school descends from the pages
history only in the IV century. Among the followers of New Pythagoreanism, one can mention -
Nigidia Figula, friend of Cicero, P. Vatinius, Art. Didyma and Evdora. More recent
neo-Pythagorean representatives are Moderat and Apollonius of Tyana. They have
there was some kind of monistic-dualistic idea of the origin of the world from
unity and indefinite duality, from here were erected geometric
constructions from the unity of lines, surfaces and bodies. Practically neo-Pythagoreanism
resorted in the matter of salvation to asceticism, theurgy and magic.
Platonism is very akin to Neo-Pythagorean. He also owes his
origin of the religious and eclectic course of time and closely adjoins
to the philosophy of Antiochus, who sought to evoke (as if) from oblivion the ancient teaching
Plato. Plutarch of Chaeronea is a typical New Pythagorean Platonist.
Philosophy, in his opinion, should advance the moral life. His
philosophy achieves an external goal through piety and knowledge of God.
Religious syncretism. An eclectic religious-philosophical movement embraced
only the upper classes of society. The masses of the people began to get carried away by the eastern
cults; they were widely borrowed and combined with their previous beliefs.
If eclecticism is a more or less systematic combination of provisions from
different schools of thought, then on religious grounds syncretism is, as it were,
mechanical stringing, accumulation, gathering, for some reason pleasing beliefs. V
the end of the 1st century, as Juvenal puts it in his figurative language, Orontes, Nile and
Gallium poured out, much to the chagrin of the ancient Romans, into the Tiber. Isis and Serapis,
Cybele and Attis (Syrian Baal), Sabatius and Mithra - were revered to the extreme
western borders, and in Germany, and in Brittany.
From historical moments, the annexation of the Seleucid
kingdom to the Roman, as a point when the Chaldeans rushed to the west in droves and
spread their teaching here. The reason for the widespread distribution of eastern
cults in the West had special properties of Eastern religions - their cosmopolitanism (and
individualism) and mysticism. Among the Eastern cults, the most popular was the cult
Mithras, who triumphed in Rome, in the end, over all pagan
religions.
Undoubtedly, the main reason for this lies in the syncretic nature of the cult of Mithra.
It is not known exactly where it originated, the cult of Mithra went around all the eastern countries,
absorbing special elements from all Eastern religions and in particular from
mysticism. As a result, the cult of Mithra became, as it were, international
a cult that combined all the cults of antiquity. And this union was not
just external, mechanical, but apparently quite deep, organic.
Being the culmination of paganism in a religious sense (as neoplatonism - in
religious-philosophical) - "the cult of Mithra," says Grusset, "occupies
mediating position between paganism and Christianity "; however, he struggles with
last, but at the same time prepares him - this explains his quick
distribution, as well as its short existence.
To end all major manifestations of ancient thought in the age of Christmas
Christ, who in one way or another influenced the development of Christian science, and before
created an atmosphere and soil, with the emergence and spread of Christianity, - we
it remains to say about neo-Platonism, however, somewhat ahead of the chronological
development of events.
Neoplatonism is the last form of Greek philosophy in which the ancient spirit,
using elements of many previous teachings, he rose to a high
soaring, somewhat mystical speculation. An inquisitive thought is directed in him
especially on the deity and on the attitude of the world and man towards him, but does not neglect
physics, ethics and logic. In contrast to the earliest cosmocentric and
the comparatively late anthropocentric point of view of Greek philosophy,
appears in this last phase theocentric, i.e. predominantly in the center
religious element. Despite the connection with the earliest, neo-Platonism all
philosophical knowledge led to a new philosophical system.
Neoplatonism originated in Alexandria, where in the maelstrom of nationalities met
also then significant philosophical and religious currents and often merged.
Its founder was Ammonius Saccus (A.D. 175-242), he was raised in
Christianity, but later again turned to Hellenism. He did not leave
a written presentation of their teachings. This was done by his disciple Plotinus (204-268),
but made public, published only by the disciple of the latter Porfiry (+ 304). Besides
The dam by the disciples of Am. Sacca were the Neo-Platonist Origen and the Christian Origen, also
Longin, philologist. The Syrian school is distinguished from this Alexandrian-Roman school, in
whose head was Iamblichus, the fantastic theurgist, and the Athenian, who again
more inclined towards theoretical speculation, and in Proclus found her glorious
representative.
Under the neo-Platonic doctrine properly understood the doctrine of Plotinus.
What significantly distinguishes Plotinus from Plato, as well as his immediate
predecessors - this is the recognition of a single principle standing above ????. ???? for
it was not a perfect unity, since, at the same time, it is a subject
and the object of knowledge ????? and ?????????, therefore, must split into two. There is
the need to seek something higher, higher than duality. It is
absolute unity, one - ?? ??, the highest that can only be
conceivable. This is not reason, but also not-unreasonable, but superintelligent (??????????? ???
?????). One or a deity is closer, more precisely defined, positively presented
The dam failed, because it is higher than thought, higher than being. Much arises from
united by emanation, radiation (??????????), just as from the sun
the gleam surrounding it emanates. There is nothing in the One, but all of it. What of
the only one in the nearest way arises - this ????. It is thought of as a work and
reflection of the one. From a single ???? gets creative power, it contains ??????
??????, as a true conceivable world, towering over the ghostly world. From ???? "and
the soul emanates, the third principle of Plotinus. She is the mediator between the thinkable and
phenomenal world. Matter appears in Plotinus as an emanation from the soul.
Matter in Plotinus, like in Plato, is qualityless, formless ???????
(unlimited), which receives its forms only through ????? (over). V?????
incarnate ?????, i.e. ideas of the higher world. These????? Dam like ?????
??????????? Stoics, only without their properties of materiality. Theodicy,
the most detailed for ancient times, gives Plotinus in his books ???? ????????
(Ann. III, 2 and 3). Here it is proved that this world is the best and
superb.
We have reviewed in general terms religious, moral and philosophical views
in the age of the Nativity of Christ and we come to the conclusion that, on the one hand, the ancient world
at the time in question was a deeply sad spectacle of the fall
ancient genius, and on the other - opened up bright points to which she could graft
new life. The decline has affected philosophy itself - as for moral
hand, then in a theoretical respect, in ethics there was some kind of trampling on
one place, repetition with some variations of Socratic views on
virtue, as a phenomenon identical with knowledge, and as the goal of life. Without seeing
way out of such views, people rushed about helplessly in life, passing from
Stoic rigorism and neo-Pythagorean asceticism into practical Epicureanism.
The Stoics saw suicide as the best outcome of human life; practical
the epicureans believed the whole meaning in refined hedonism, and people of lower development -
generally in rude entertainment.
The positive side of the development of the ancient world was reflected in the evasion of man from
the external world and in addressing oneself, to one's inner
religious and moral life. On this path, people came to staging serious
moral and religious problems and to the consciousness of the unity of mankind and
brotherhood. One of the most characteristic features of the time in question is the search
salvation and striving for the purification of the soul in the various mysteries. The rescue
supplied depending on the message through the revelation of known truths, from
knowledge of God, the world and man. Thus, piety passes into gnosis.

Religious beliefs of the Jewish people in the age of the Nativity of Christ.
Two main tasks were taken as the basis for the education of the Jewish people: that
Yahweh, the only true God of the whole world, called the Jewish people into a covenant with him and
that Yahweh entered into a covenant with this people not for its selfish national
goals, but for the salvation of the whole world. It took all the time to strengthen in the first truth
up to the Babylonian captivity. Only after the captivity did the people not shy away from Yahweh and did not
was exposed to conviction by the prophets of idolatry (cf. book Nehem. 9.
6,7) .
The second task of educating the Jewish people is to serve the salvation of all people,
due to various unfavorable circumstances, it was not achieved or
completed. The Jews, in an incomparable majority, were convinced that they
called only for their own good of salvation and inheritance in the messianic kingdom;
other peoples will enter this kingdom unless only as trophies of the chosen
people, i.e. defeated, his slaves. This proud godly mind
was the cause of the rejection of the people and their complete catastrophe in A.D. 70-135.
Before the captivity of Babylon (and some time after the captivity, through the minor prophets)
divine revelation was communicated to the Jewish people. After the captivity began
the study of the revelation by the people. This business took over 10 centuries, with
time of Ezra (end of the 5th century). before the conclusion of the Talmuds - Jerusalem (IV-V centuries after
R.H). and Babylonian (VI century). From an objective and cultural point of view, the post-prisoner
era is a very significant time in the history of the development of national
self-awareness of the Israeli people: these are centuries of special excitement of inner life,
times of colossal work. It is enough to point out that at this time
Talmud, which made possible the centuries-old existence of the people without
state, territory, without a temple, king and high priest.
The time after captivity is characterized as "rule of law," nomocracy. Start
to this dominion - in fact, among the Jews of Jerusalem, Ezra put
who founded the institute of scribes. Strong enemy of the development of nomism and Jewish
nationalism appeared in the 2nd half of the 4th century. Hellenism. By this time the Jews
Alexandrian, and partly Palestinian, have already largely obeyed
the influence of Hellenism. However, the violent onslaught of Hellenism, represented by Antiochus
Epiphanes, gave rise to the Maccabean uprising on the whole people. From now on, however
less, the development of life under the shadow of the law was violated. Political
the independence achieved by the people becomes the starting point proper
Jewish, post-prophetic apocalyptic and serves to a strong revival
messianic aspirations.
For more than four centuries BC, with the last prophet Malachi,
prophecy in the history of the Jewish people and any message in general
God's revelation. It was a period of self-assimilation by the Jewish people
received revelation, which opens with the era of scribes.
At the beginning of the 2nd half of the 5th century, the priest Ezra, who was in Babylon, heard about
great disorder among the Jews who returned from captivity to Palestine, with
permission of the king, went to Jerusalem to put in order
life in Judea. In the book. Nehemiah (8: 1-8) tells about the beginning of the activity
Ezra among the people:

"And the priest Ezra brought the law before the assembly of men and women ... and read from it
in the square ... And the ears of all the people were bowed to the book of the law ... And they read
(the Levites) from the book, from the law of God, clearly and added interpretation, and the people
I understood what I was reading ... The people were moved and cried, listening to the word of the law. Throughout
to this (ie stated in the law) we give a firm commitment and sign "
(cf. - 9: 9, 38; 10).

This dates back to 445 BC. During this time, the law of God has been so studied that
maybe by the middle of the 2nd century, i.e. by the time of the Maccabees,
the main provisions that in the middle of the 2nd century A.D. entered the Mishnah,
whose codification is attributed to Jude by St. (Gakodesh, late 2nd century). Running
a little ahead, let's say now that the Mishna is the basis of the Talmud. To the Mishna -
the law - the interpretation was compiled - the Gemara; Talmud consists of Mishna and Gemara
Jerusalem, compiled in the 4th-5th centuries, and Babylonian - in the 6th century.
The complete rule of law has led to the need to limit it, or better, -
replenishment.
From the time of the Maccabees, the study of the prophets begins. People who sought from the prophets
only the answer to the question, what reward awaits them for the allegedly fulfilled law -
made of them very meager, even miserable extracts, by no means understanding the whole
the depth of their content. People are deeply religious and somewhat mystical
minded created on the basis of the prophets a majestic image of the future, although
perhaps carrying traces of excessive imagination and undisciplined thought.
Under the influence of the study of the prophets, an apocalyptic is created. The very name ??????????
rests on the general biblical or religious concept of revelation in general. The most
the name of its apocalyptic shows that it is closely related to the prophecy.
The apocalyptic are busy with the question of the fate of the chosen people: does it not contradict
the concept of one almighty God and His people everything that happens with this people
in the world, under the rule of pagan peoples. Apocalyptic is busy with questions
eschatological and resolves them within the framework of universal history. Direct transition
from prophecy to apocalypticism is the book of the prophet Daniel, being itself the first
an apocalypse and a model for the next. The most important apocalypses are
the book of Enoch (appeared c. 162-161 BC), then the apocalypses of Baruch and Ezra, after
a more probable assumption that appeared after the destruction of Jerusalem, i.e. v
late 1st century. There is also the apocalypse, but it is not an imitation
Jewish prophecy, and wrapped in the clothes of a pagan oracle. We understand
books of the Sibyl (oracula Sibyllina) - a literary collection of different times
origin of Alexandrian Judaism. By the wealth of the messianic and
the eschatological material is distinguished by the 3rd book of the Sibyl, and it is verses 97-807,
dating back to 140 BC Unknown author when describing world events and
coups, depicting the calamities that caused Egypt from Asia
"a mighty king, a mighty eagle," continues: "then (when calamity is destructive
wars will reach extreme limits) from the east (sob. from the sun) God will send a king,
which will calm the earth from destructive war, killing some and fulfilling firm
promises to others. "
Alongside this apocalyptic direction, which did not penetrate deeply into
people, lived the most ancient direction, national-political or
rationalistic. For his followers, his law was and remains the main support
life and in a sense the only source of salvation. From this point of view
the law looked at both religion and the very future deliverance. Religion, instead of
the former union, as an intimate relationship of God with the people, acquired the character
business, life-practical contract. The people are obliged to fulfill the whole law, and
God must grant him salvation for this. The Messiah was not dear to them as
revelation of the living God, but as a bearer of benefits for his people. Therefore not
it is surprising that the Messiah is sometimes forgotten behind the trees of future blessings (how,
for example, in the book of Jubilees, the Ascension of Moses, etc.). The first literary
the monument where the rationalistic direction makes itself felt is the book
Sirach. It is in it that the idea of the law is carried out as the main source
salvation, and there is no mention of the Messiah. Strongly makes itself felt
rational-political direction in the books of Baruch and Tobit. In the book of Jubilees
or Lesser Genesis, the spelling of which can only be attributed to the 1st
century BC, there is no mention of the messianic king at all, but the depiction of the future
Messianic eschatological times in this book there is enough space
(special chapters 1 and 23). The apocalyptic book "Psalms of Solomon" is the most striking
expression of the national political direction.
As for the views on the Messiah of the masses, they are imbued, according to
our gospels, national-political character; from this look were not
free and the best Israelites, for example, Zechariah, the disciples of Christ and others. They
only did not insist, did not persist in their views, but, in the end,
humbly submitted to the will of God. The Idea of Christian Mediation Ministry
Neighborhood, especially brotherhood with all nations, was alien to the consciousness of the Jew. It `s that
his selfish desire for the kingdom of the Messiah for himself was Achilles' heel for
him, at the first coming of Jesus Christ.

Note. According to the general opinion of researchers, the Jews did not have the doctrine of the Sufferer
Messiah before the 3rd century according to R.Kh. In books apocryphal, in particular in the apocalypse,
no such teaching is contained. - From "Conversation with Tryphon the Jew" (chapter LVIII)
St. Justin, it follows that in the 2nd century some of the Jews began to recognize
the need for the suffering and death of Christ, but stubbornly disputed the image of death on
cross, referring to the law ("cursed is everyone, hang on a tree").

First period
(30-313 gg.).

Founding, spreading and internal development of the Church
in the fight against the Jewish and Greco-Roman world.
The first period from the beginning of the Church to the Edict of Milan by Constantine the Great, from
29-30 of the Christian era until 313 - there is a time of the foundation of the Church and the gradual
distribution first only among the Jews, and then among the Gentiles not
only without any support from worldly forces, but even with a hostile
their attitude and open persecution - and under such conditions the Church
has conquered solid ground for itself in the world. She won the hostile world through her
partly by apologists, but mainly through confessors and martyrs.
Threatened by various delusions and divisions - heresies and schisms,
The Church has retained its unity; from moral corruption and vices of modern
of the world, to which its members were involved, she kept her holiness.
At the same time, she revealed her teaching, using all the good and acceptable
elements of the cultural world, ennobling them. In the development of worship, the Church
adjoins the synagogue, but abandons particularism and national
isolation; borrowing a few liturgical actions and rituals, she
enriched her cult on all sides, attracting to the service of herself and art -
architecture, sculpture, painting, music, singing. She uplifts and ennobles
the lower classes of society and keeps their believers in their circle of duties through
high discipline and through the wise, combined with gentleness, severity ... Church
proves itself as a divine institution capable of renewing the deep-fallen
peace, attract the surprise and love of all noble hearts, resting on this
God-based, and at the same time progresses in its development from the inside to the outside.

Chapter I.
Mission of the Church in the First Three Centuries.

Founder of the Christian Church, Jesus Christ.
Forerunner of Christ, John, son of Zechariah and Elizabeth, the last prophet of the Old
Of the Covenant, the first one called Christ the "Messiah": "Here is the Lamb of God, which takes upon Himself
the sins of the world "(John 1:29) and pointed to His approaching kingdom, but he himself did not enter
him. Therefore, Jesus Christ said about him: "He did not rise from those born of wives
greater than John the Baptist; but the least in the kingdom of heaven is greater than him "(Matt.
11:11). His role was according to the prophet Malachi (3: 1), angel, messenger of the Messiah and
a maker of the way to His Kingdom. His preaching was exclusively
religious and moral character, as a call to repentance, and alien to all
political motives. However, Herod could have kept John in prison, and then
put him to death - I think - justifying himself only by the political nature of his
activities.
Those who thought that the murder of innocent John
put an end to this kind of preaching ... No, one was replaced by another,
incomparably stronger than him - Jesus Christ.

Who was Jesus?
I. However, we must put earlier another question, more radical: was there,
did Jesus exist? is He not a mythical person?
This is not an idle question, not an artificial one. In the last quarter of the XIX century. marxists
- Engels and K. Kautsky came out with the assertion that Christ did not exist,
Christianity appeared without Christ; it grew out of the movements of the Roman proletariat.
On the initiative of the Marxists, some scholars of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. also became
challenge the historical nature of the person of Jesus Christ. Between them acquired
the infamous not even the theologian by education Arthur Drews (Art. Drews.
Die Christusmythe, 1910), and then Robertson, Kalthof and others. But the view
denying the existence of Christ is an exceptional phenomenon, about which until the end of the XIX century.
knew nothing. During the 19th centuries, Jesus Christ was, of course, considered
historical personality.
II. The whole question was only whether Jesus Christ was a God-man or
just a man? In ancient times, the supernatural origin of Jesus Christ
denied by some pagan scholars like Celsus, Porfiry and others. Then after
IV century, when the Christian religion received not only the right to exist,
but it also became the dominant religion - until the 18th century. Divine-human
the character of the person of Jesus Christ was recognized by all. With the advent of rationalism in
XVIII century a miraculous element in the gospel story was attacked. Someone
Pavlus (1761-1851) in a supposedly good intention, even for apologetic purposes,
tried to sweep out all the miraculous from the gospel story and eliminate all
supernatural through naturalistic explanation and artificial
exegesis. Without denying the authenticity of the gospel narratives, Pavlus admitted
historical foundations of Christianity. His task was to bring the evangelical
history to a rational, historical and pragmatic understanding.
Only from the time of David Strauss (1808-1874) did the historical
the nature of our gospels. "Ancient exegesis, says Strauss, came from two
assumptions: the first that our gospels contain history, the second that
this story is supernatural. "But that's not true, according to him." Or the gospel, "
says Strauss, "really are historical documents, and then a miracle cannot
be removed from the life of Jesus, or the miracle is incompatible with history, and then
gospels cannot be historical documents. "All salvation from contradictions
Strauss sees in the criticism of evangelical sources and in myth, as the soul of the evangelical
stories. Strauss was naturally inclined to solve this dilemma in the latter
sense. "From the mere fact that the Gospels speak of the supernatural
facts, it is clear that they cannot be historical documents ... we will leave
the gospels, their miracles, but subject to treating them as simple myths. "Myths
eyewitnesses of events could not create, and the gospels cannot be works of
disciples of Christ.
Strauss is strong and merciless in criticism, but lacks the power of creativity; its "mythical"
Jesus did not come out as a real person, but as an abstract scheme ...
the task of reconstructing the living image of Jesus from the wreckage, precisely in a rationalistic
spirit, took over by Ernest Renan (1823-1892). "I traveled to the evangelical area
up and down, "says Renan about his preparation for the essay on Jesus
Christ ... "The 5th Gospel appeared before my eyes, fragmentary, but still
readable, and since then, through the stories of Matthew and Mark, I
there was no longer an abstract being, about which one can say that such
has never been in the world, but the wondrous image of a person who lives, moves ... "
Renan has neither faith nor serious science. A sad discord between faith and science
in the great question of the personality of the Founder of the New Testament Church, he tries
reconcile on the basis of aesthetic, artistic, - in a field alien to faith and not
akin to science. This is why Renan turned "The Life of Jesus" into a beautiful novel.
An attempt to portray Jesus as a religious figure, as a redeemer and
A. Reville makes a conciliator in his work "Jesus de Nazareth." I-II. Paris
1897. According to Reville, Jesus was a "great mystic," who realized
"the interpenetration of the most intense religion and lofty morality ..."
The person of Jesus Christ became the subject of such veneration that they did not hesitate to
to see in the Son of Man a being greater than man. Its gradual
deification has begun! Thus, Reville's view of Jesus Christ
typically rationalistic, strongly influenced by the Richlian school.
Here is a brief history of rationalistic views on the face of Jesus Christ. Let's move on
to the definition and image of His true Face.
The sources of the life of Jesus Christ are divided into biblical and extra-biblical.
Extra-biblical sources are insignificant in number and volume, and let's say about them
primarily.
The most important we consider the testimony of Tacitus, who was born in the 56th year of the Christian era
and who wrote his Annals in 115-117. Therefore, Tacitus in his youth could
rotate among the generation of people who have seen Jesus Christ. So, in the XV book. their
Annals, in chapter XLIV, describing the persecution of Christians under Nero (54-68), briefly
notes: "ductor nominis ejus (scilicet christiani) Christus Tiberio imperante
per procuratorem Pontium Pilatum supplicio affectus erat "(The culprit of this name
(Christian) Christ was put to death under the rule of Tiberias,
Procurator Pontius Pilate). Tacitus, according to the time of his life, had a complete
the opportunity to verify the reality of the person of Jesus Christ, and he
positively certifies Him.
Chronologically somewhat earlier, but less definite mention of Christ
makes the historian Suetonius in "Vita Claudii," p. 25: "Judaeos impulsore Chresto
assrdue tumultuantes Roma expulit, "i.e. the emperor Claudius (41-54)" of the Jews,
those who were incessantly indignant at the instigation of Christ, he drove them out of Rome.
the event dates back to the early 50s. Wonderful, this is Suetonius's testimony
confirms Luke, Greek by birth. Indeed, he says that the apostle Paul
in Corinth "Having found a certain Jew, named Aquila, a Pontian by birth, recently
who came from Italy, and Priscilla, his wife, (because Claudius commanded all
Jews to leave Rome) "(Acts 18: 2-3) - hence, the fact is certain: the emperor
Claudius, by special decree at the beginning of the 50s of the Christian era, expelled the Jews from
Rome. Two historians speak about this independently of each other - Luke and Suetonius.
The latter also explains the reason for the issuance of this decree - this is the excitement of the Jews because of
"Rebel Khrest." In the early 50s of the 1st century. this excitement of the Jews is understandable. It
was caused by the decree of the Jerusalem Council (49-50 g). about optional
Mosaic law for pagans who entered the Christian Church, which through
a year or two came to Rome, causing there, among the Judeo-Christians, especially
stormy public disputes. The vigilant Roman police, as best they could, caught
the meaning of disputes-unrest over some reformer ("rebel of Christ") and
reported to the emperor.
He looked at the matter seriously and used the radical means common in history.
against the Jews - their expulsion from the country, without distinction between Jews and Christians, for
such a distinction has not yet existed.
Now we will mention one more classic, the most precious for early Christianity
document - the famous letter (X, 97) of Pliny the Younger to Emperor Trajan
(98-117), when he was proconsul of Bithynia in 111-112, this document is important
especially for the history of Christian mission, persecution and Christian worship.
It contains the name "Christus" three times, as a historical figure, not
subject to doubt.
Pliny, by the way, writes that the deviating from Christianity "mialedicerent
Christo, "or another time" Christo maledixenmt "and then that true Christians
converge before dawn to sing a hymn to Christ as God (convenire carmenque
Christo quasi deo). - There are also references to Jesus Christ from the philosopher Celsus, from
Lucian, from the historian Lampridius.
Among the extra-biblical data on the face of Jesus Christ, it would seem, the first place
must belong to Jewish messages - for example, contemporaries of Jesus Christ
- Philo and Josephus. However, a complete disappointment awaits the historian here.
Philo, a distinguished Jew of Alexandria, thoroughly abandoned all interest in
Jerusalem or Galilean religious and popular movements and therefore
completely, perhaps, deliberately ignored Jesus Christ and John the Baptist.
Josephus Flavius, while compiling his historical works, fearfully looked around
the Romans; consequently, deliberately avoided mentioning messianic ideas and
the messianic movements of their people. He only casually, a propos, touches John
Baptist (Antiquit. Xviii, 5). Of course, information about Jesus cannot be expected.
Christ at the one whom Celsus also called one ??????? ?? ????? ?????? and silence
whom Origen emphasized about Christ. Famous testimony of Christ,
contained in Antiquit. XVIII, 3.3, cf. XX, 9.1, which gives out already confession
adherent of Jesus Christ, believing in the resurrection (it is cited by Eusebius Ts.
I, 11), despite its presence in all known lists, in no
the case cannot be recognized as genuine in its entirety; a hand is visible here
the ancient Christian interpolator ... The compatriot of Joseph Flavius, Justin from
Tiberias, which at the end of the 1st century. wrote the chronicle of the Jewish princes before Agrippa II,
does not mention a single word about Christ. Photius, (Bibliotheca, S. XXXIII)
explains this by "the morbidity of Judaism." From the middle of the 2nd century, this fearful
demonstrative silence gives way to hateful exclamations and blasphemies,
so that - as St. Justin and Celsus already understood, denigrate, disgrace the memory of
crucified Jesus.
To go to biblical sources, you must first mention the apocryphal
and the gnostic gospels. They cannot claim the authority of historical
the sources of the life of Jesus. Even the oldest and comparatively best of them -
the gospel to the Jews reveals significant shortcomings in its, so to speak,
original originality in comparison with our gospel of Matthew, being
abundantly filled with edifying messages. Apocryphal Gospels
are the products of fantasy that arose from the 2nd to the 7th century. in heretical circles, for
filling the gaps in the life of Jesus, especially the story of Christmas, childhood and
suffering. In contrast to the 4 canonical gospels, they serve only
new proof of the high dignity of the latter.

Biblical sources.
Our canonical gospels, as the historical sources of the life of Jesus Christ,
have irrefutable evidence for themselves.
1) The antiquity of the Gospels is attested by the monuments of the end of I and the beginning of II
century, - the Epistle of Clement of Rome, St. Ignatius, "The Teaching of the 12 Apostles" and with
especially clear in the last quarter of the 2nd century, namely, from the time of St. Irenaeus.
2) The authenticity, authenticity of the Gospels, i.e. their belonging to our
evangelists - Matthew, Mark, Luke and John is assured for the first two and the 4th
the Gospel of John, the husband of the Apostolic Pope of Hieropolis (in Eusebius C.I. III,
39) in the first half of the 2nd century. and with complete certainty for all four
the same St. Irenaeus. Amazing business! Gospel 4, as the gospel "spiritual" according to
relation to "corporeal," which is of particular importance for the image of the divine
personality of Jesus Christ and therefore subject to the most fierce attacks from
side of the rationalists, has the most convincing evidence of its
authenticity - and precisely, in the living tradition from St. John through his disciple
Polycarp of Smyrna, in turn the teacher of St. Irenaeus of Lyons, solemnly
testifying: "John, the disciple of the Lord, reclining on His bosom, issued his
gospel, during his stay in Ephesus of Asia "(Against Heresies, III,
I, 1; cf. W, XI, 9).
3) Finally, the reliability of the Gospel stories cannot be doubted, for
disciples of Jesus Christ and their companions had the opportunity to observe the life of Jesus
Christ and hear directly or through the correct medium (for Mark - ap.
Peter, for Luke - ap. Paul) His true teaching.

About the face of Jesus Christ according to the canonical gospels.
The earthly life of Jesus Christ, according to the Gospels, is a real human life.
It has its beginning, development, its zenith and its end in death. Nothing
the human is not alien to Jesus. He is happy as we are. He needs rest and
strives for calmness. He cries like everyone else. He works and fights like we do.
He lived and suffered like the rest of us. But on the other hand, on the night of Jesus' birth
an angel of the Lord appeared to the shepherds of Bethlehem and announced: "Today you have been born in
in the city of David, the Savior, who is Christ the Lord "(Luke 2:11).
The 12-year-old Boy Jesus calls the Jerusalem Temple belonging to His Father (Lk.
2.49) or "my Father's house" (John 2.16). Addressing people, Jesus said:
"Come to Me, all who are weary and heavy laden, and I will give you rest ... you will find
rest for your souls "(Matt. 11: 28-29). Or" All things have been given to me by my Father "(v. 27). Oh
metaphysical filiation of God is not here, and, however, those words in the mouth
a person like us would be simply unbearable. No prophets, no one else did
such an appeal to people and such statements about their power. All the greatness of these
words is that people can in Him, in Christ, have what they can
give only one God ... Jesus otherwise forgives sins, which is typical
only to God. He assimilates to Himself the works of the Father and desires the same worship for Himself as
Father. He, finally, equates Himself with the Father in essence, which is why the Jews accused
His blasphemy (cf. John 5:18).
Jesus Christ knew in advance about His suffering and death and attributed to them
redemptive meaning for people. Who was Jesus? Once upon a time Jesus Christ
asked the man who was healed by Him who was born blind: "Do you believe in the Son of God?" He
answered, asking: "Who is He, Lord, to believe in Him?" But Jesus said
to him: "You saw Him talking to you - He is." He exclaimed: "I believe
Lord, and worshiped Him. "
Here is in a few words the essence of the gospel teaching about Jesus Christ, as
the incarnate Son of God, or God-man, as the Savior of people.

The Case of Jesus Christ.
"I have glorified You on earth, I have completed the work that You have commissioned Me to do."
(John 17: 4). "Was it not necessary for Christ to suffer?" (Luke 24:26). "And give my soul
His redemption for many "(Matthew 20:28).

Jesus Christ was not a political or social leader. "Render Caesarean
Caesarev, but God's Gods, "" My kingdom is not of this world, "Christ taught.
was completely indifferent to the dominant state structure and
rejected the political desires of the people and His disciples.
Neither Pilate nor Herod found Him guilty of anti-state and
anti-social activities, which the Jews tried to accuse Him of! He
exclusively religious and moral figure. Himself not systematic
school (cf. John 7:15), which did not give a definite system of theoretical and
practical teaching, who did not establish a complex organization for His society,
He did not fit the usual type of legislator and organizer; however He put
the beginning of the Christian society and its external organization, as well as inscribed in
essential features of the teaching of faith and morality.
The Rationalist Theologians' View of Christ's Teachings as Anything
indefinite (Zemler), about purified Judaism (Genk and others), or about
moral only, and not about dogmatic teaching together (Ritchl and others) - it is erroneous.
The reality is this; Jesus Christ does not break ties with Judaism and high
puts the Old Testament: "Do not think that I have come to break the law" (Matt. 5:17). He
observes rituals, Jewish holidays, visits the Jerusalem Temple. However, He
rises above the rite and gives a free interpretation to the Old Testament. Decrepit
The covenant, according to Him, ended in the New, therefore, it does not have a self-sufficient
meaning, but only propaedeutic, like shading, as preparation for the messianic
kingdom. He predicts the destruction of the Jerusalem Temple, this concentration
Jewish rituals, and teaches that you can serve God everywhere, if only this service
was spirit and truth. He gives the rite only a conditional, symbolic character,
putting above it the spiritual essence of religion and the requirements of morality (Luke 6: 1-10; 14:10).
The Son of Man, He teaches, is the Lord of the Sabbath. He delves into interpretation
individual commandments and values not their outer fulfillment, but inner feeling,
which serves as an incentive for external action and thus moralizes
commandment. The law says: Thou shalt not kill; and I say: do not be angry, i.e. eradicate that
an internal feeling that leads to an external act of murder. The law speaks of
love for one's neighbor, and the interpretation of the Jewish scribes meant that the neighbor was
a person of the same nation. Christ expands the concept of neighbor to enemy and gives
thus, the concept of love is of the broadest nature: love of all, not excluding
enemies (Matt. 5: 20-27). At the same time, Christ sharply denounced outward piety
Pharisees, alien to inner piety and all the more emphasized the moral
side of His message. At the same time, Christ is not alien to the doctrine. His main
provisions, according to the gospels, are as follows: God is one, He created the world and
trades about people. It is perfect. He is a loving Father, equally beaming
light on the righteous and the unrighteous; once made a covenant with the Jewish people,
He is now making a new covenant through His Son. Jesus Christ is the Son of God,
saving the human race through His sufferings and death. This is the central idea
Of the New Testament. He is the Messiah, but not the Messiah - the King, but the Son of God, the Lamb of God. So
Thus, in the minds of Christians, He is not only the subject (Harnack), but also the object of faith.